https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Jimmy101 2026-04-24T15:39:10Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.44.3 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Ammunition&diff=4431 2016-04-06T21:28:52Z

<p>Jimmy101: add link to common ammo page</p> <hr /> <div>== Introduction and Formatting==<br /> (See also the [[Common Ammo]]s page) Ammunition can be describe as anything that can be fired out of a cannon or launcher. This broad definition leads to a list of possible projectiles that could stretch on nearly forever. This article will list the more common ammunitions used in the spudding world, as well as provide some useful information regarding their physical properties and performance characteristics. The information will be listed in the following format:<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Ammo Type===<br /> The section directly under the name of the ammunition will provide you will all the general information on using and procuring the round. This is also where any points of interest are located, as well as tips, advice, and modifications.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Mass'''<br /> <br /> Here the mass of the ammo will be listed. Please help out everybody overseas by providing masses in both ounces and grams whenever possible.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Diameter'''<br /> <br /> This is the diameter of the round, again offered in both Imperial and Metric units. For ammunition cut by the barrel, this will be equivalent to the barrel's inside diameter. For other ammo (such as golf balls, marbles, etc.) it will be the average observed diameter, or the regulation diameter where applicable. (Such as in sports balls)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Cd'''<br /> <br /> Coefficient of drag. The Cd of a particular ammo is usually dependent on the velocity of the ammo and whether or not it is spinning or tumbling.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Terminal Velocity'''<br /> <br /> Defined as the point at which wind resistance is equal to the force from gravity observed by an object in free fall. This number will depend largely on the density of an object, and it's Cd. Terminal Velocity represents the highest speed an object can reach when dropped from adequate height.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Common Barrels'''<br /> <br /> A list of barrel sizes commonly used with the specified ammunition. This is primarily useful for objects with a defined diameter, such as a regulation sports ball.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Upon Impact'''<br /> <br /> A description of what is likely to be observed when the ammunition impacts certain types of objects.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Common Ammunitions ==<br /> <br /> === Potatoes ===<br /> The humble potato is the original ammunition of spud guns and still enjoys widespread use today, though it is quickly losing favor to other ammunition types, such as golf balls. When a spud is muzzle loaded the tip of the barrel (often times sharped into a [[Spud cutter|muzzle knife]]) trims it to size, resulting in a nearly air tight fit.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Mass'''<br /> <br /> The mass of a potato projectile will depend on the type of spud used, as well as the length the slug is cut to, and what diameter barrel it is made for. Many spudders have assigned the common potato a density of 1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, but this is only to be used as a rough estimate for calculating projectile mass.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Diameter'''<br /> <br /> Potatoes are usually cut by the barrel of the launcher as they are loaded, and thus will have a diameter equal to that of the barrel's inside.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Common Barrels'''<br /> <br /> While any barrel sized smaller than the spud can be used to launch a potato without a sabot, 1.5&quot; and 2&quot; Sch. 40 are the most commonly observed sizes on launchers designed primarily for shooting potatoes.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Upon Impact'''<br /> <br /> Potatoes usually break into dozens of large chunks when they impact a medium hardness surface, and will 'vaporize' upon striking hard surfaces (such as wood or steel) at high velocities.<br /> <br /> === Golf Ball ===<br /> Golf balls lend themselves well to use as launcher ammunition for a number of reasons. Not only are they uniform in their shape and size, they enjoy the benefit of having received hundreds of thousands of dollars in research. The fact they are purpose built for stable, aerodynamic flight, coupled with widespread availability make golf balls one of the most commonly used modern launcher rounds.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Mass'''<br /> <br /> Regulations set a golf ball's mass at 46g, or 1.56oz.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Diameter'''<br /> <br /> Regulations set a golf ball's diameter at 1.68&quot;, or 427mm.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Cd'''<br /> <br /> 0.299<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Terminal Velocity'''<br /> <br /> The terminal velocity for a regulation golf ball is 132fps, or 40mps.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Common Barrels'''<br /> <br /> Golf balls have a near perfect fit in both SDR 21 (1.70&quot; ID) and SDR 26 (1.73&quot; ID) in the 1.5&quot; variety. Though these barrels fit a golf ball well, their thin walls (.090&quot; and .073&quot; respectively) makes them too weak to act as a barrel over a couple feet in length. To create stronger barrels capable of lengths past 2 feet, SDR pipe is often slid into 2&quot; Sch. 80 PVC. The 2.05&quot; ID of the 2&quot; pipe makes a very good fit with the 1.09&quot; OD of the 1.5&quot; SDR. More information can be found in the article on [[Sleeving]].<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Upon Impact'''<br /> <br /> A golf ball will survive most mid speed impact with relatively hard objects. The primary concern when shooting golf balls at hard objects is the chance of dangerous ricochets. At high speeds golf balls can burst into fragments upon contacting a hard target.<br /> <br /> === Ammo ===<br /> '''Mass'''<br /> <br /> '''Diameter'''<br /> <br /> '''Cd'''<br /> <br /> '''Terminal Velocity'''<br /> <br /> '''Common Barrels'''<br /> <br /> '''Upon Impact'''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ammo Construction ==</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=What_is_a_spudgun%3F&diff=4430 2016-04-06T21:18:06Z

<p>Jimmy101: linked &quot;projectile&quot; to the &quot;common ammo&quot; page</p> <hr /> <div>There are many different names for spudguns. They are called potato cannons, spud launchers, potato guns, spud cannons, and a host of others. Whatever you decide to call it, all of the aforementioned describe the same type of device: a device used to accelerate a potato down the barrel, and shoot it some distance. While it may offend some purists, the humble little potato is quickly losing favor to other ammunitions such as golf balls, tennis balls, and other cheap, uniform projectiles.<br /> <br /> There are two common means to launch projectiles from a spudgun. The [[pneumatic launcher|first]] uses the energy stored in a compressed gas and the [[combustion launcher|second]], more common method, uses the energy released by combusting fuel vapors. <br /> Also, there exists a less common combination of pneumatic and combustion launchers, a [[hybrid launcher|&quot;hybrid&quot;]], that combusts a pressurized fuel-air (or fuel/oxidizer) mixture. <br /> <br /> As more advanced concepts continue to be designed and built, the general definition of a spudgun has become a homebuilt launcher that uses expanding gases to propel a projectile, and does not use any compounds which contain their own oxidiser for the actual propulsion. <br /> <br /> The object of any of these varieties of spudguns is to propel projectiles in the direction of a designated (safe) target, for recreation and sometimes science experiments. <br /> <br /> [[Common Ammo]]s include: [[potato]]es, (obviously), small [[Ammo|citrus fruit]], [[tennis ball]]s, [[golf ball]]s, bb's, or marbles.... in fact, pretty much any spare vegetable or commonly available object you can ram down the barrel. This is part of the beauty of spudguns.<br /> <br /> <br /> Some spudguns are very simple, inexpensive designs, such as the aerosol-spray-powered combustion or ball-valve and bike pump operated pneumatic. Some can get complicated and/or expensive, such as large home-made piston valved pneumatics and propane metered combustion guns. A decent potato gun can be built for as little as $15 or $20 at the local hardware store, ranging right up to several thousand with parts from across the world.<br /> <br /> <br /> When proper safety is practiced, spudding is no more dangerous than other common hobbies, such as model airplanes. Though as with any activity that can be dangerous, safety should always be your number one priority. So please, take the time to read the [[safety]] section.<br /> <br /> [[category:Concepts]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4429 2015-09-26T17:18:18Z

<p>Jimmy101: </p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propylene&lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;(propene, MAP/Pro)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;491&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-47.6&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-54)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;109&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;<br /> 2C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + 9O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 6CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAP/Pro gas is a proprietary mixture of propylene and 0.5% propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;<br /> References:&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% greater with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Muzzle_velocity&diff=4408 2014-05-27T20:19:47Z

<p>Jimmy101: Added VERA and a few other minor changes</p> <hr /> <div>'''Muzzle velocity''' is the velocity of the projectile immediately after leaving the [[barrel]], and other than a few hypothetical situations, is the fastest the projectile will ever go. Muzzle velocity is typically measured by a [[Chronometer|chronograph]], a device that measures the time it takes the projectile to travel between 2 sensors, although less accurate results can be gathered from a [[ballistic pendulum]] or the quite inaccurate [[hang time]] test.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Muzzle energy==<br /> <br /> This is muzzle velocity's companion, and can be calculated as following:<br /> (1/2)(Mass)(Velocity&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), where mass is in kilograms, velocity is in meters/sec, and output is in Joules.<br /> For instance, a 100g (0.1Kg) [[potato]] going 150 meters/sec (a large [[combustion launcher|combustion spud gun]] is capable of this) would have a muzzle energy of:<br /> (1/2)*(0.1Kg)*(150m/s)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=1125 J.<br /> <br /> 1.5 joules is approximately 1 foot pounds, the traditional imperial (US) unit of energy for firearms.<br /> <br /> It should be noted that in the case of [[sabot]]ed projectiles being simulated with the [[GGDT]], the actual muzzle energy is equal to GGDT muzzle energy * projectile mass/projectile mass+sabot mass.<br /> <br /> The following is a table of selected spud guns compared with rim and centerfire ammunition muzzle energies.<br /> &lt;table cell-border=2 cell-padding=1 align=center&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt; '''Projectile''' &lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;&lt;b&gt; '''Energy, J''' &lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;typical [[paintball]]&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;0.22 rimfire&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;180&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;2&quot; Spud at 300FPS&lt;br&gt;(moderate sized combustion spud gun)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;~400&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;0.45 colt&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;675&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;410 slug&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;1000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;2&quot; Spud at 490FPS&lt;br&gt;(large sized combustion spud gun)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;~1100&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;2&quot; Spud at 600FPS&lt;br&gt;(moderate sized pneumatic spud gun)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;~1600&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;0.223 (M-16)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;1900&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;0.60 (M-14, M-60)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;3640&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;30-06&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;4500&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;100g slug at 1300FPS&lt;br&gt; (moderate sized 10x [[Hybrid Cannon|hybrid spud gun]]) &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;~7600&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;VERA[http://gizmodo.com/5899952/americas-navy-tests-its-missiles-with-the-worlds-biggest-potato-gun/]&lt;br&gt; (world's largest combustion &quot;spud gun&quot;)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;~2,250,000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> <br /> [[category:Concepts]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Propane&diff=4311 2011-02-27T17:18:10Z

<p>Jimmy101: added stuff to the first image</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Propane.gif|right|thumb|300px|The propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) molecule. Carbon atoms are green, hydrogen atoms are white.]]'''Propane''' is probably the most common [[fuel]] used by builders of higher-end [[combustion cannon|combustion launchers]] - and with good reason too. It is powerful, easily [[fuel meter|metered]], clean burning, widely available and inexpensive.<br /> <br /> Propane can be injected the same way an [[aerosol]] fuel would, but it is common to devise a method to carefully control the amount metered into the [[chamber]]; often a conventional [[fuel meter]] or large syringe is used, although using the pre-mixed fuel mixture from an unlit propane torch is convenient for fueling very small launchers. <br /> <br /> It is important that the fuel/air mixture be near 4.2% by volume, because you lose power if your fuel/air mix is [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html wrong]. <br /> <br /> Propane leaves no soot when burned, so it does not require one to clean their chamber frequently, and leaves practically no offensive odor after combustion. However, propane usually has an odorafactant added to make the odorless propane smell like rotten eggs.<br /> <br /> [[Image:UL100_sm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bernzomatic Torch]]Propane is sold in bulk tanks and disposable canisters at most hardware stores. A convenient &quot;starter setup&quot; for spud gunning is a [http://www.bernzomatic.com/ Bernzomatic] torch head and bottle set. All that is really needed is the propane cylinder and torch head and will cost $20 to $30. The standard 400 gram propane cylinder is enough fuel for hundreds of shots from a typical spudgun.<br /> <br /> Propane is frequently the propellant in [[aerosol]] cans such as spray paints, hair sprays and the old formulation of RightGuard antiperspirant.<br /> <br /> Occasionally, spud gunners have used a propane bottle as the source of pressurized gas for a [[pneumatic cannon|pneumatic gun]] since the pressure in a the propane cylinder is in a convenient range for a pneumatic and the bottle is easily portable. (See the [[pressure]] versus temperature table below.)<br /> <br /> Propane is a member of the alkane family of hydrocarbons, having the general formula, C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+2&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;br&gt;<br /> Molecular Formula: C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> Condensed Formula: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> Combustion: C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ==&gt; 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> [[category:fuels]]<br /> [[Image:Propane_pressure_temp.gif|right]]<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; id=&quot;table1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFCC&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&amp;nbsp;Temperature&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;<br /> (&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFCC&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&amp;nbsp;Vapor Pressure&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;<br /> (psig)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;-44&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;0 &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;-30&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;6.8&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;-20&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;11.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;-10&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;17.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;24.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;34&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;20&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;42&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;53&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;40&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;65&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;50&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;78&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;93&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;b&gt;70&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;b&gt;110&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;80&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;128&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;90&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;150&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;100&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;177&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;110&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;204&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;228&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;130&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;259&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;140&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;292&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;150&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;329&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;160&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=center&gt;369&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> Source: engineeringtoolbox.com</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Butane&diff=4310 2011-02-21T00:33:26Z

<p>Jimmy101: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Butane.gif|frame|The n-butane molecule]]Butane is quite similar to [[propane]], but with a slightly lower [[stoichiometric]] value of 3.23%. Pure butane is found in disposable lighters and lighter refill canisters.<br /> <br /> Butane has a lower vapor [[pressure]] than propane, and its boiling point is -0.5&amp;deg;C (31.1&amp;deg;F), limiting it's use to higher temperature environments. It is most easily used the same way as [[aerosol]] [[fuel]]s.<br /> <br /> Disposable canisters with mixtures of butane, propane and (sometimes) isobutane are sold for camping gear and blowtorches, this gas evaporates at lower temperatures and can be used in cold weather.<br /> <br /> Molecular Formula: C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> n-Butane Extended Formula: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> iso-Butane Extended Formula: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> Combustion: 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ==&gt; 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> <br /> [[file:Butane_pressure_graph.gif|frame ]]<br /> [[category:fuels]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4309 2011-02-21T00:31:26Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns */</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propylene&lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;(propene, MAP/Pro)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;491&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-47.6&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-54)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;109&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;<br /> 2C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + 9O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 6CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAP/Pro gas is a proprietary mixture of propylene and 0.5% propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;<br /> References:&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% greater with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Fuel_meter&diff=4308 2011-02-20T18:59:59Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Syringe based meter */</p> <hr /> <div>A '''fuel meter''', also known as a '''propane meter''', is used to inject a predetermined amount of [[fuel]] gas (usually [[propane]]) into the [[chamber]] of a [[Combustion cannon|combustion]] or [[hybrid cannon|hybrid]]. Any system that injects a known volume of fuel into the gun is a fuel meter. Fuel meters can take a couple of different basic forms. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Syringe small.jpg|frame|60cc Syringe and Needle]]<br /> == Syringe based meter ==<br /> The simplest and cheapest fuel meter is a syringe. The syringe is filled from a propane (or [[butane]]) tank by inserting the syringe tip into a suitable sized piece of hose fitted over the tank outlet. When the tank [[valve]] is opened the syringe plunger will move back. The tank valve is closed when the correct amount of fuel is in the syringe. The syringe is removed from the hose and the excess [[pressure]] in the syringe is released to the atmosphere. The syringe now contains the measured volume of fuel at atmospheric pressure. The fuel is injected into the gun's chamber using a needle passed through a small port, or between the clean out [[adapter]] and clean out plug. Plastic syringes up to about 60cc are available from well supplied farm supply stores since the syringes are used to give medicines to farm animals. Expect to pay about $2 for a 60cc plastic syringe and perhaps another $1 for a blunt tip needle. Smaller syringes frequently come with printer cartridge ink refill kits.<br /> <br /> [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nM603eOQU4 syringe fuel meter video tutorial]<br /> <br /> There are several ways to attach a syringe to a propane or butane source:<br /> {| <br /> | [[image:Syringe_lighter.jpg|frame|left|A simple syringe meter. The red tubing is the insulation from 20G wire. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Hacking_lighter.html Hacking a lighter])]]<br /> || <br /> | [[image:StepsAnnotated_b.jpg|frame|left|Attaching the tubing to the lighter. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html A Fuel Meter From A Disposable Butane Lighter])]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:Syringe_refill.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard butane lighter refill cartridge via a short length of tubing.]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:Syringe_bernzomValve.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard Bernzomatic torch head (after removal of the torch head's air mixer).]]<br /> || <br /> | [[image:Minihybridsetup_158.jpg|frame|left|Sometimes, the syringe can simply be firmly pushed up agains the outlet of a propane (or butane) source. ]]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Ball valve + pressure regulator based meter ==<br /> More complex fuel meters consist of an adjustable [[pressure regulator]] and [[pressure gauge]], connected to two [[ball valve]]s with a length of pipe in between. The volume of this pipe and the pressure of the gas determines the amount of gas injected. The second ball valve is connected to the chamber of the gun.<br /> A fuel meter is operated as follows:<br /> *The regulator is set to a predetermined pressure for the particular meter and chamber size<br /> *The ball valve closest to the regulator is opened, filling the pipe up until the second ball valve with gas at the regulated pressure<br /> *The first ball valve is closed again, closing off the section of pipe between the two valves<br /> *The second ball valve is opened, the pressurized gas inside the meter expands and enters the main chamber<br /> *The second ball valve is closed, and the cannon is ready to fire<br /> <br /> The regulator usually only needs to be set the first time, and further fueling can be done simply by opening and closing the two ball valves. A fuel meter provides fast and very consistent fueling, and is the easiest way to use bottled gas for fuel.<br /> <br /> It is possible to construct a fuel meter using only a meter pipe, pressure gauge, and two ball valves (with no regulator). This type of meter is less expensive and will provide accurate fueling, but is not as easy to use as a meter setup with a regulator.<br /> <br /> ===Calculations===<br /> <br /> Constructing a fuel meter and determining the correct pressure to use requires a few calculations. First you need to calculate the fuel:air ratio, and from that the amount of fuel needed. These calculations are covered under [[stoichiometry]].<br /> <br /> <br /> Formulas for fuel meters:<br /> <br /> P=pressure in bar, Vf=fuel volume, Vm=meter volume. Any unit of measurement can be used for the volume, as long as the same unit is used throughout. Pressure needs to be converted to bar, if you have the pressure in psi divide it by 14.7.<br /> *P = Vf/Vm<br /> *Vm = Vf/P<br /> *Vf = P*Vm<br /> <br /> ===Concrete example===<br /> <br /> In the example from the stoichiometry article, we found that the fuel volume needed for a 3000 cc chamber is 126 cc. At 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi) of overpressure, we'd need a meter volume of 126 cc. At twice the pressure, we'd need half the volume and so on.<br /> <br /> For the example, we decide that meter pressure will be 3 bar. The meter volume required is then 126/3 = 42 cc.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fuel Tool (found on Burnt Latke's [http://www.burntlatke.com/calc.html performance calculators page]) automates the fuel meter calculations.<br /> <br /> == Needle Valve plus Pressure Gauge ==<br /> <br /> [[Image:UL100_sm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bernzomatic Torch]]<br /> Another type of fuel meter is simply a needle valve and a low range pressure gauge. The needle valve can be the valve and very small outlet hole in a typical Bernzomatic torch head. <br /> <br /> The needle valve is plumbed to the chamber as is the low pressure gauge. To protect the torch and gauge it is a good idea to plumb both through a single small ball valve. To use, the ball valve is opened. Then the needle valve is opened a small amount. When the pressure in the chamber has risen 4% the two valves are closed. Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 PSI, adding 4% propane will raise the pressure in the chamber by 0.59 PSIG. Since the pressure rise is small, standard 120 or 250 PSIG gauges won't work for this type of meter. <br /> <br /> A possible replacement for a low pressure range gauge is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manometer#Liquid_column|&quot;U-tube manometer&quot;]. In this type of pressure gauge the pressure is related to the difference in height of the two columns of liquid. If the U-tube is filled with water, then a 1&quot; difference in height represents a 0.0361 PSI difference in pressure. So, 0.59 PSI would be a 16.3&quot; height difference for the two water columns. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Utube.gif|U-Tube Manometer]] <br /> [[Category:Accessories]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:StepsAnnotated_b.jpg&diff=4307 2011-02-20T18:58:06Z

<p>Jimmy101: Attaching small gauge tubing (here using a piece of insulation from 20G wire) to a disposable butane lighter.</p> <hr /> <div>Attaching small gauge tubing (here using a piece of insulation from 20G wire) to a disposable butane lighter.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Fuel_meter&diff=4306 2011-02-20T18:55:41Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Syringe based meter */</p> <hr /> <div>A '''fuel meter''', also known as a '''propane meter''', is used to inject a predetermined amount of [[fuel]] gas (usually [[propane]]) into the [[chamber]] of a [[Combustion cannon|combustion]] or [[hybrid cannon|hybrid]]. Any system that injects a known volume of fuel into the gun is a fuel meter. Fuel meters can take a couple of different basic forms. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Syringe small.jpg|frame|60cc Syringe and Needle]]<br /> == Syringe based meter ==<br /> The simplest and cheapest fuel meter is a syringe. The syringe is filled from a propane (or [[butane]]) tank by inserting the syringe tip into a suitable sized piece of hose fitted over the tank outlet. When the tank [[valve]] is opened the syringe plunger will move back. The tank valve is closed when the correct amount of fuel is in the syringe. The syringe is removed from the hose and the excess [[pressure]] in the syringe is released to the atmosphere. The syringe now contains the measured volume of fuel at atmospheric pressure. The fuel is injected into the gun's chamber using a needle passed through a small port, or between the clean out [[adapter]] and clean out plug. Plastic syringes up to about 60cc are available from well supplied farm supply stores since the syringes are used to give medicines to farm animals. Expect to pay about $2 for a 60cc plastic syringe and perhaps another $1 for a blunt tip needle. Smaller syringes frequently come with printer cartridge ink refill kits.<br /> <br /> [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nM603eOQU4 syringe fuel meter video tutorial]<br /> <br /> There are several ways to attach a syringe to a propane or butane source:<br /> {| <br /> | [[image:Syringe_lighter.jpg|frame|left|A simple syringe meter. The red tubing is the insulation from 20G wire. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Hacking_lighter.html Hacking a lighter])]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:StepsAnnotated.jpg|frame|left|Attaching the tubing to the lighter. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html A Fuel Meter From A Disposable Butane Lighter])]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:Syringe_bernzomValve.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard Bernzomatic torch head (after removal of the torch head's air mixer).]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:Syringe_refill.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard butane lighter refill cartridge via a short length of tubing.]]<br /> |- <br /> | [[image:Minihybridsetup_158.jpg|frame|left|Sometimes, the syringe can simply be firmly pushed up agains the outlet of a propane (or butane) source. ]]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Ball valve + pressure regulator based meter ==<br /> More complex fuel meters consist of an adjustable [[pressure regulator]] and [[pressure gauge]], connected to two [[ball valve]]s with a length of pipe in between. The volume of this pipe and the pressure of the gas determines the amount of gas injected. The second ball valve is connected to the chamber of the gun.<br /> A fuel meter is operated as follows:<br /> *The regulator is set to a predetermined pressure for the particular meter and chamber size<br /> *The ball valve closest to the regulator is opened, filling the pipe up until the second ball valve with gas at the regulated pressure<br /> *The first ball valve is closed again, closing off the section of pipe between the two valves<br /> *The second ball valve is opened, the pressurized gas inside the meter expands and enters the main chamber<br /> *The second ball valve is closed, and the cannon is ready to fire<br /> <br /> The regulator usually only needs to be set the first time, and further fueling can be done simply by opening and closing the two ball valves. A fuel meter provides fast and very consistent fueling, and is the easiest way to use bottled gas for fuel.<br /> <br /> It is possible to construct a fuel meter using only a meter pipe, pressure gauge, and two ball valves (with no regulator). This type of meter is less expensive and will provide accurate fueling, but is not as easy to use as a meter setup with a regulator.<br /> <br /> ===Calculations===<br /> <br /> Constructing a fuel meter and determining the correct pressure to use requires a few calculations. First you need to calculate the fuel:air ratio, and from that the amount of fuel needed. These calculations are covered under [[stoichiometry]].<br /> <br /> <br /> Formulas for fuel meters:<br /> <br /> P=pressure in bar, Vf=fuel volume, Vm=meter volume. Any unit of measurement can be used for the volume, as long as the same unit is used throughout. Pressure needs to be converted to bar, if you have the pressure in psi divide it by 14.7.<br /> *P = Vf/Vm<br /> *Vm = Vf/P<br /> *Vf = P*Vm<br /> <br /> ===Concrete example===<br /> <br /> In the example from the stoichiometry article, we found that the fuel volume needed for a 3000 cc chamber is 126 cc. At 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi) of overpressure, we'd need a meter volume of 126 cc. At twice the pressure, we'd need half the volume and so on.<br /> <br /> For the example, we decide that meter pressure will be 3 bar. The meter volume required is then 126/3 = 42 cc.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fuel Tool (found on Burnt Latke's [http://www.burntlatke.com/calc.html performance calculators page]) automates the fuel meter calculations.<br /> <br /> == Needle Valve plus Pressure Gauge ==<br /> <br /> [[Image:UL100_sm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bernzomatic Torch]]<br /> Another type of fuel meter is simply a needle valve and a low range pressure gauge. The needle valve can be the valve and very small outlet hole in a typical Bernzomatic torch head. <br /> <br /> The needle valve is plumbed to the chamber as is the low pressure gauge. To protect the torch and gauge it is a good idea to plumb both through a single small ball valve. To use, the ball valve is opened. Then the needle valve is opened a small amount. When the pressure in the chamber has risen 4% the two valves are closed. Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 PSI, adding 4% propane will raise the pressure in the chamber by 0.59 PSIG. Since the pressure rise is small, standard 120 or 250 PSIG gauges won't work for this type of meter. <br /> <br /> A possible replacement for a low pressure range gauge is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manometer#Liquid_column|&quot;U-tube manometer&quot;]. In this type of pressure gauge the pressure is related to the difference in height of the two columns of liquid. If the U-tube is filled with water, then a 1&quot; difference in height represents a 0.0361 PSI difference in pressure. So, 0.59 PSI would be a 16.3&quot; height difference for the two water columns. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Utube.gif|U-Tube Manometer]] <br /> [[Category:Accessories]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Fuel_meter&diff=4305 2011-02-20T18:49:24Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Syringe based meter */ added more photos</p> <hr /> <div>A '''fuel meter''', also known as a '''propane meter''', is used to inject a predetermined amount of [[fuel]] gas (usually [[propane]]) into the [[chamber]] of a [[Combustion cannon|combustion]] or [[hybrid cannon|hybrid]]. Any system that injects a known volume of fuel into the gun is a fuel meter. Fuel meters can take a couple of different basic forms. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Syringe small.jpg|frame|60cc Syringe and Needle]]<br /> == Syringe based meter ==<br /> The simplest and cheapest fuel meter is a syringe. The syringe is filled from a propane (or [[butane]]) tank by inserting the syringe tip into a suitable sized piece of hose fitted over the tank outlet. When the tank [[valve]] is opened the syringe plunger will move back. The tank valve is closed when the correct amount of fuel is in the syringe. The syringe is removed from the hose and the excess [[pressure]] in the syringe is released to the atmosphere. The syringe now contains the measured volume of fuel at atmospheric pressure. The fuel is injected into the gun's chamber using a needle passed through a small port, or between the clean out [[adapter]] and clean out plug. Plastic syringes up to about 60cc are available from well supplied farm supply stores since the syringes are used to give medicines to farm animals. Expect to pay about $2 for a 60cc plastic syringe and perhaps another $1 for a blunt tip needle. Smaller syringes frequently come with printer cartridge ink refill kits.<br /> <br /> [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nM603eOQU4 syringe fuel meter video tutorial]<br /> <br /> There are several ways to attach a syringe to a propane or butane source:<br /> <br /> [[image:Syringe_lighter.jpg|frame|left|A simple syringe meter. The red tubing is the insulation from 20G wire. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Hacking_lighter.html Hacking a lighter])]]<br /> <br /> [[image:StepsAnnotated.jpg|frame|left|Attaching the tubing to the lighter. (see [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html A Fuel Meter From A Disposable Butane Lighter])]]<br /> <br /> [[image:Syringe_bernzomValve.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard Bernzomatic torch head (after removal of the torch head's air mixer).]]<br /> <br /> [[image:Syringe_refill.jpg|frame|left|A syringe attached to a standard butane lighter refill cartridge via a short length of tubing.]]<br /> <br /> [[image:Minihybridsetup_158.jpg|frame|left|Sometimes, the syringe can simply be firmly pushed up agains the outlet of a propane (or butane) source. ]]<br /> <br /> == Ball valve + pressure regulator based meter ==<br /> More complex fuel meters consist of an adjustable [[pressure regulator]] and [[pressure gauge]], connected to two [[ball valve]]s with a length of pipe in between. The volume of this pipe and the pressure of the gas determines the amount of gas injected. The second ball valve is connected to the chamber of the gun.<br /> A fuel meter is operated as follows:<br /> *The regulator is set to a predetermined pressure for the particular meter and chamber size<br /> *The ball valve closest to the regulator is opened, filling the pipe up until the second ball valve with gas at the regulated pressure<br /> *The first ball valve is closed again, closing off the section of pipe between the two valves<br /> *The second ball valve is opened, the pressurized gas inside the meter expands and enters the main chamber<br /> *The second ball valve is closed, and the cannon is ready to fire<br /> <br /> The regulator usually only needs to be set the first time, and further fueling can be done simply by opening and closing the two ball valves. A fuel meter provides fast and very consistent fueling, and is the easiest way to use bottled gas for fuel.<br /> <br /> It is possible to construct a fuel meter using only a meter pipe, pressure gauge, and two ball valves (with no regulator). This type of meter is less expensive and will provide accurate fueling, but is not as easy to use as a meter setup with a regulator.<br /> <br /> ===Calculations===<br /> <br /> Constructing a fuel meter and determining the correct pressure to use requires a few calculations. First you need to calculate the fuel:air ratio, and from that the amount of fuel needed. These calculations are covered under [[stoichiometry]].<br /> <br /> <br /> Formulas for fuel meters:<br /> <br /> P=pressure in bar, Vf=fuel volume, Vm=meter volume. Any unit of measurement can be used for the volume, as long as the same unit is used throughout. Pressure needs to be converted to bar, if you have the pressure in psi divide it by 14.7.<br /> *P = Vf/Vm<br /> *Vm = Vf/P<br /> *Vf = P*Vm<br /> <br /> ===Concrete example===<br /> <br /> In the example from the stoichiometry article, we found that the fuel volume needed for a 3000 cc chamber is 126 cc. At 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi) of overpressure, we'd need a meter volume of 126 cc. At twice the pressure, we'd need half the volume and so on.<br /> <br /> For the example, we decide that meter pressure will be 3 bar. The meter volume required is then 126/3 = 42 cc.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fuel Tool (found on Burnt Latke's [http://www.burntlatke.com/calc.html performance calculators page]) automates the fuel meter calculations.<br /> <br /> == Needle Valve plus Pressure Gauge ==<br /> <br /> [[Image:UL100_sm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bernzomatic Torch]]<br /> Another type of fuel meter is simply a needle valve and a low range pressure gauge. The needle valve can be the valve and very small outlet hole in a typical Bernzomatic torch head. <br /> <br /> The needle valve is plumbed to the chamber as is the low pressure gauge. To protect the torch and gauge it is a good idea to plumb both through a single small ball valve. To use, the ball valve is opened. Then the needle valve is opened a small amount. When the pressure in the chamber has risen 4% the two valves are closed. Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 PSI, adding 4% propane will raise the pressure in the chamber by 0.59 PSIG. Since the pressure rise is small, standard 120 or 250 PSIG gauges won't work for this type of meter. <br /> <br /> A possible replacement for a low pressure range gauge is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manometer#Liquid_column|&quot;U-tube manometer&quot;]. In this type of pressure gauge the pressure is related to the difference in height of the two columns of liquid. If the U-tube is filled with water, then a 1&quot; difference in height represents a 0.0361 PSI difference in pressure. So, 0.59 PSI would be a 16.3&quot; height difference for the two water columns. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Utube.gif|U-Tube Manometer]] <br /> [[Category:Accessories]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Minihybridsetup_158.jpg&diff=4304 2011-02-20T18:41:12Z

<p>Jimmy101: uploaded a new version of &amp;quot;File:Minihybridsetup 158.jpg&amp;quot;</p> <hr /> <div>Direct filling of syringe from a bulk butane (or propane) source.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Syringe_refill.jpg&diff=4303 2011-02-20T18:22:35Z

<p>Jimmy101: Syringe attached to a standard butane lighter refill cartridge.</p> <hr /> <div>Syringe attached to a standard butane lighter refill cartridge.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Syringe_bernzomValve.jpg&diff=4302 2011-02-20T18:21:25Z

<p>Jimmy101: Syringe attached to a standard Bernzomatic Torch head using a piece of rubber tubbing. The air mixer has been removed from the torch head prior to attaching the hose.</p> <hr /> <div>Syringe attached to a standard Bernzomatic Torch head using a piece of rubber tubbing. The air mixer has been removed from the torch head prior to attaching the hose.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:StepsAnnotated.jpg&diff=4301 2011-02-20T18:20:15Z

<p>Jimmy101: Attaching a small diameter hose (here using a piece of whire insulation) to a disposable butane lighter.</p> <hr /> <div>Attaching a small diameter hose (here using a piece of whire insulation) to a disposable butane lighter.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Minihybridsetup_158.jpg&diff=4300 2011-02-20T18:18:13Z

<p>Jimmy101: Direct filling of syringe from a bulk butane (or propane) source.</p> <hr /> <div>Direct filling of syringe from a bulk butane (or propane) source.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Syringe_lighter.jpg&diff=4299 2011-02-20T18:17:06Z

<p>Jimmy101: Syringe attached to a cheap butane lighter</p> <hr /> <div>Syringe attached to a cheap butane lighter</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4245 2010-12-05T17:44:45Z

<p>Jimmy101: Undo revision 4244 by 83.234.245.140 (Talk)</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propylene&lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;(propene, MAP/Pro)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;491&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-47.6&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-54)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;109&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;<br /> 2C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + 9O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 6CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAP/Pro gas is a proprietary mixture of propylene and 0.5% propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;<br /> References:&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Butane&diff=4235 2010-07-24T20:58:20Z

<p>Jimmy101: added some of the stuff that is also on the propane page</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Butane.gif|frame|The n-butane molecule]]Butane is quite similar to [[propane]], but with a slightly lower [[stoichiometric]] value of 3.23%. Pure butane is found in lighter refill canisters.<br /> <br /> Butane has a lower vapor [[pressure]] than propane, and its boiling point is -0.5&amp;deg;C (31.1&amp;deg;F), limiting it's use to higher temperature environments. It is most easily used the same way as [[aerosol]] [[fuel]]s.<br /> <br /> Disposable canisters with mixtures of butane, propane and (sometimes) isobutane are sold for camping gear and blowtorches, this gas evaporates at lower temperatures and can be used in cold weather.<br /> <br /> Molecular Formula: C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> n-Butane Extended Formula: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> iso-Butane Extended Formula: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> Combustion: 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ==&gt; 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> <br /> [[file:Butane_pressure_graph.gif|frame ]]<br /> [[category:fuels]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Butane_pressure_graph.gif&diff=4234 2010-07-24T20:44:34Z

<p>Jimmy101: uploaded a new version of &quot;File:Butane pressure graph.gif&quot;:&amp;#32;Pressure versus temperature graph for n-butane and iso-butane.</p> <hr /> <div>Pressure versus temperature graph for n-butane and iso-butane.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Butane_pressure_graph.gif&diff=4233 2010-07-24T20:42:44Z

<p>Jimmy101: Pressure versus temperature graph for n-butane and iso-butane.</p> <hr /> <div>Pressure versus temperature graph for n-butane and iso-butane.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4203 2009-09-30T17:39:27Z

<p>Jimmy101: Fixed percentages for butane (was 3.67% and 3.81%)</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propylene&lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;(propene, MAP/Pro)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;491&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-47.6&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-54)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;109&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;<br /> 2C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + 9O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 6CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAP/Pro gas is a proprietary mixture of propylene and 0.5% propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;<br /> References:&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4173 2009-08-07T22:09:45Z

<p>Jimmy101: Added MAP/Pro (propylene)</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propylene&lt;sup&gt;(3)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;(propene, MAP/Pro)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;491&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-47.6&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-54)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;109&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;<br /> 2C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + 9O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 6CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAP/Pro gas is a proprietary mixture of propylene and 0.5% propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;<br /> References:&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Stun_gun&diff=4074 2009-04-19T16:59:57Z

<p>Jimmy101: Added a breif setion on how a stung gun works</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Stun-open.jpg|frame|A stungun being modified for use in an ignition system]]'''Stun guns''' create a large high voltage spark, and are therefore useful as [[ignition source]]s. They are one of the simplest to set up, the [[spark gap]] is simply connected to the main electrodes. The spark gap needs to be smaller than the default gap for the circuit to function. If a gun has multiple spark gaps then the total spark gap length must be less than the default gap. Stun guns provide the highest voltage of the common ignition sources, 50-900KV (KV=thousand volts), but spark length is limited by the default gap, which is typically 0.75&quot; to 1&quot; (20~25mm). They are generally powered by one or more 9V batteries. The trigger switch only carries battery voltage, so it can be replaced with a remote trigger switch in a more convenient place (see also [[Remotely_Activated_Gun| remote control]]). <br /> <br /> ==How A Stun Gun Works==<br /> <br /> A typical stun gun circuit is fairly simple. If it weren't for the specialized transformer required it would be relatively easy to build your own stun gun from scatch. For a description of how a typical stun gun works see [http://www.bigclive.com/stunner.htm here].<br /> <br /> ==Repackaging==<br /> <br /> The entire stun gun circuit can be removed from the original enclosure and mounted in a project box or other suitable container, though the default gap should always be left intact to prevent over voltage and internal arcing. If the stun gun has been transferred to a new enclosure it may qualify as a high voltage power supply instead of being considered a &quot;stun gun&quot;.<br /> <br /> ==Characteristics of a &quot;Good&quot; Stun Gun for Spudding==<br /> <br /> One characteristic of a stun gun that is frequently used to judge how &quot;good&quot; it is is the manufacturer's claimed voltage; 20KV, 50KV, 100KV, 300KV etc. Be warned that these voltages are generally '''grossly''' overestimated and are really of very little use. The maximum working voltage of a stun gun is limited by the default gap (and any inadvertent gaps inside the case as described below). If the default gap is 1&quot; (25mm) then the maximum voltage the gun generate with sharp points on the electrodes is about 25KV, and ~75KV if the gap uses very large radius electrodes (&quot;large&quot; being several inches in radius). <br /> <br /> A better way to judge the suitability of a particular stun gun is to look closely at the case and see if it can be opened. Many stun gun cases are glued closed and opening them is likely to damage the case and the circuitry. If you can find a stun gun with screws holding the case closed then it is much more likely that you can repair or modify it. Converting a stun gun with an easily opened case to [[Remotely_Activated_Gun | remote control]] is fairly easy.<br /> <br /> ==Sources==<br /> <br /> Stun guns are available from a variety of sources. In some locations, depending on the local laws, gun stores and outdoorsman stores carry stun guns. In addition, there are several online sources of stun guns. Ebay usually has at least a couple dozen listings for stun guns. If you use Ebay beware that many sellers will list their stun guns at a very low price ($5 or less) then hit you with a $15 &quot;shipping and handling&quot; fee. A reasonable Ebay price for a generic stun gun should not exceed $20 total, with a little work they can sometime be obtained for $10 total.<br /> <br /> ==Potential Problems==<br /> <br /> Stun guns are a relatively cheap and usually reliable ignition sources, but they are not constructed to be operated for more than a few seconds at the time. Operating a stun gun for more than a couple of seconds can overheat and fry it. Most often it is the main switching transistor that gets fried, it can usually be replaced with any transistor of similar or higher ratings. Stun guns appear to fail about as often as [[BBQ ignitor|piezo electric (BBQ) sparkers]], which is to say, some will last forever, a few will die after only a few uses.<br /> [[Image:Stun-open_annotated.jpg|frame|Major parts inside the stun gun case]]<br /> <br /> Another common failure mode, besides frying of the main transistor, is the development of an internal arc in the stun gun. The high voltage will always jump the smallest gap it can find. Sometimes this gap is, incorrectly, inside the case of the stungun. If the spark is jumping inside the stungun case then there is no voltage available to jump the external gap(s). Note that a normally operating stun gun sometimes has '''two''' spark gaps that '''both''' must spark, the visible external spark gap (which is usually two gaps; the default gap and the working gap) and '''another''' gap located inside the case. The internal gap is part of the high voltage generating circuitry. Usually, this internal gap is simply two strips of flat metal that cross each other in an X pattern. These two pieces of metal are designed to arc at a fairly &quot;low&quot; voltage (probably a few hundred volts) and supply the switching between the two stages of voltage amplification that most stun guns use.<br /> <br /> If your stun gun quits working it may not be completely dead. If the gun still makes a ticking sound and/or a high-pitched whine, then it may have developed an internal arc. Try using a piece of wire to shorten the working gap and see if the smaller gap will spark. If you can get the external gap to be smaller than the internal (incorrect) gap then the stun gun may still be usable. If you purchased a stun gun with an easily opened case you can usually locate the incorrect internal arc and coat it with silicon caulk. ''Do not confuse the incorrect arc with the normal internal spark gap that the gun may contain.'' <br /> <br /> ==Legal Issues==<br /> <br /> Stun guns are illegal in many countries, and in some places in the U.S. In these places, alternate ignition sources may be required. The design of a [[camera flash]] plus [[ignition coil]] ignition is very similar to that of a stun gun though this setup will create only one spark after which it must be allowed to recharge for several seconds. The camera flash + ignition coil setup will usually give sparks that are much longer, and considerably more powerful, than even a &quot;300KV&quot; stun gun.<br /> <br /> ==Stun Gun Alternatives==<br /> Tasers and cattle prods also contain similar high voltage sources, but are less well suited as ignition sources. Tasers are expensive and have a lot of superfluous components, cattle prods have a lower voltage and can only drive small spark gaps.<br /> <br /> Certain inverter circuits used for fluorescent lights, CCFs (cold cathode fluorescents) and &quot;ion generators&quot; can sometimes be used as ignition sources.<br /> <br /> [[Category:Ignition sources]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=4033 2009-02-03T18:55:10Z

<p>Jimmy101: Added combustion limits for dimethyl ether</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.0 - 18.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;References: http://members.nuvox.net/F%7Eon.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> &lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ol&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Combustion_cannon&diff=3978 2008-06-27T06:21:25Z

<p>Jimmy101: </p> <hr /> <div>''27 June 2008''<br /> <br /> 1) &quot;''A basic combustion cannon is the simplest one to build''&quot; refers to combustion cannons only, not to all canons. It expands upon the preceeding sentence and doesn't appear to be unreasonably opinionated when taken in context of the paragraph;<br /> ''A combustion cannon is a cannon powered by the combustion of flammable fuel-air mixtures. A basic combustion cannon is the simplest one to build, and is therefore often the choice for first time builders...''<br /> <br /> 2) It is pretty unlikely that Kylon &quot;''is the most common type of spray paint used on potato cannons''&quot;, though it may well the the most often recomended.<br /> <br /> 3) &quot;''... you can be considered 100% safe.''&quot; Perhaps a bit over stated but a properly built basic combustion should '''never''' fail. A failure means something was wrong with the gun or how it was used. Of course, a &quot;basic&quot; gun means propane (or similar fuel) + air at 1X, not acetylene + oxygen at 5x. The other aspect of safety has nothing to do with the structural integrity of the gun. If the gun misfires and you look into the muzzle to see what's wrong, well then ... <br /> <br /> Many of the pages in the Wiki were written &quot;on the fly&quot; and have not been edited much from the orignal versions. Pretty much every page has unsupported opinions, poor choice of words, odd English useage etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> ''26 June 2008''<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;A basic combustion cannon is the simplest one to build&quot;<br /> <br /> Now that is a bold statement. Combustion and pneumatic launchers in there simplest form are comparably easy to make. So is this statement even necessary? If the statement is necessary at least include the premises upon which you made that conclusion. Perhaps it has fewer critical components, or it is cheaper, or whatever. Alone it is extremely opinionated.<br /> <br /> &quot;Krylon Fusion, a type of paint specifically made for plastics, is the most common type of spray paint used on potato cannons.&quot;<br /> <br /> While I don't think we need to go about and cite our sources, but I want to know how it is verifiable to say Krylon Fusion is the staple paint brand when it comes to painting potato cannons. Maybe mention that the Krylon is a major manufacture of paint, and that there Fusion line is specifically made for PVC among other plastics.<br /> <br /> &quot;When using a normal fuel, pressure rated pipe and fittings and have properly solvent welded all of the joints, you can be considered 100% safe.&quot;<br /> <br /> Who the f*ck said that?<br /> <br /> Why don't I just go in and edit everything myself? I intend to, but first I must understand what we are going for here. Seems a lot of people are wingin' it with some opinionated bull.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Unknown Date''<br /> <br /> <br /> Hey, where's that trouble shooting guide?<br /> <br /> <br /> ''9 March 2008''<br /> <br /> <br /> I've removed Bigbob's edit: <br /> ''&quot;bigbob edit, above it says they are the simplest to build this is not true. Pnuematics are much easier to build and oprerate.&quot;''<br /> <br /> Since the preceeding sentence, and the page itself, is concerned with combustion guns the reference to pneumatics is not relevant. A basic combustion is indeed the simplest '''combustion gun''' to build.<br /> <br /> A paragraph saying that a pneumatic may be a easier to build than a combustion may be appropriate, but that I believe the statment is debatable.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Chamber_fan&diff=3966 2008-06-09T16:00:38Z

<p>Jimmy101: some answers to benstern&#039;s questions, and some new questions</p> <hr /> <div>I have a few questions.<br /> <br /> 1) By &quot;'''quick vent plug'''&quot;, do you mean [[Quick disconnect]]?<br /> <br /> 2) I am pretty sure that I have have heard of pc case fans melting in combustion spudguns. Can someone verify this?<br /> <br /> 3) I believe that good amount of high heat in the combustion chamber lasts longer then &quot;a few milliseconds&quot; after combustion has ended.<br /> <br /> 4)Can someone confirm or deny the statement about turbulence of the flame front being undesirable in hybrids due to increased risk of DDT?<br /> <br /> Thanks,<br /> benstern<br /> ----------------------<br /> I've never heard of a fan showing significant signs of melting in a correctly operating gun. I can imagine the fan melting if the cleanout plug was removed and the gun was ignited since the flame front would move through the fan very slowly.<br /> <br /> Typical times from click to boom for generic combustion guns is about 50 milliseconds or so. The high temp probably lasts 10~20mS. The high temperature may indeed only last a couple milliseconds after the end of combustion but it is hot in the chamber long before combustion is complete.<br /> <br /> I would think the risk of fan-induced DDT in a hybrid is pretty minimal. Besides, DDT &lt;&gt; gun failure since the energy released in DDT depends on when it happens. I suspect the main reason for not seeing many hybrids with chamber fans is because of <br /> <br /> 1) the extremely high temp and pressures making it likely the fan will be destroyed<br /> <br /> 2) the difficulty in installing a fan in a metal chamber (the wiring would be a PITA)<br /> <br /> 3) hybrids often have fairly small diameter chambers and hence would need very small fans<br /> <br /> 4) a fan wouldn't help much with venting the chamber since hybrids rarely have large diameter removable plugs (never seen a hybrid that uses a cleanout plug).<br /> <br /> 5) Proabably the most important reason, burn speed is much less important in a hybrid than in a generic combustion gun. The hybrid's burst-disk delays the ammo's movment until most of the fuel has been burned so burn speed just isn't all that important. (In a normal combustion the ammo starts to move when only ~10% of the fuel has been burned, the fan helps to get the other 90% of the fuel burned before the ammo exits the barrel.)<br /> <br /> 6) you don't really need one since the energy available in the chamber is so much higher than in a 1x gun, the performance increase due to a fan would be much less in a hybrid than in a 1x gun. <br /> <br /> - - - - - - -<br /> <br /> Should a section be added to the fan page discussing the size of the fan? The fan shown is nearly the same diameter as the chamber. This should be great for venting the gun but may not be optimal for mixing and turbulance induction. Indeed, it might do little in the way of inducing turbulance. Many builders use CPU fans (typically 40~50mm) instead of the much larger case fans. In a closed chamber a fan nearly the diameter of the pipe may give minimal actual gas flow since there is really nowhere for the gases to go to and no real path from the high pressure side of the fan to the low pressure side. A smaller fan allows the gases to be circulated around the fan and would be expected to give much higher gas velocities.<br /> <br /> jimmy101</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Chronometer&diff=3962 2008-06-04T17:58:29Z

<p>Jimmy101: changed the commercial chrony&#039;s accuracy to &quot;less than 1%&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>In the world of devices that launch things at high velocity a '''chronometer''' is a device for measuring a projectile's velocity. This device is sometimes referred to as a &quot;'''shooting chronometer'''&quot;.<br /> <br /> There are many methods for measuring the speed of a projectile. They range from simply counting how long a round takes to hit the ground after being fired straight up (the &quot;hang time&quot; method) to sophisticated commercial devices that can measure velocities to an accuracy of less than 1% over a range of velocities from a few tens of feet per second (FPS) to several thousand FPS.<br /> <br /> == Hang Time Method ==<br /> <br /> One method for estimating the [[muzzle velocity]] of a spud gun is to measure the hang time for a spud fired straight up. The &quot;hang time&quot; is the time from when the spud leaves the [[barrel]] until it hits the ground. If there is no air friction, then the speed at which the spud hits the ground is the same as the muzzle velocity. If air friction is neglected, the formula is based on the equation of motion in a uniform gravitational field;<br /> <br /> ''Muzzle velocity = (1/2)gt'' <br /> <br /> Where ''g'' is the acceleration due to gravity (32.2 fpss, 9.81m/s) and ''t'' is the time in seconds from firing until the round hits the ground. So, a hang time of 10 seconds would suggest a muzzle velocity of (1/2)(32.2fpss)(10s)=161fps.<br /> <br /> Unfortunately, for a typical spud gun, air friction is significant and makes the simple calculation fail miserably. Hang time can be used to estimate the relative muzzle velocity of two guns firing the same [[ammo]] but it can not be used to calculate the actual muzzle velocity.<br /> <br /> If the aerodynamic characteristics of the ammo are known then the hang time can be used to estimate the muzzle velocity, such as in the case of a tennis ball, whose Cd (Coefficient of Drag) has been experimentally determined to be about 0.6.<br /> <br /> == Commercial Shooting Chronometers ==<br /> <br /> There are several commercially available chronometers suitable for use with spud guns. Perhaps the most common is the Chrony&amp;reg; F1, a product of [http://www.shootingchrony.com/ Shooting Chrony Inc.] The F1 sells at retail for $90 and they are frequently available used for a bit less. <br /> <br /> The F1 uses optical detectors to detect the passage of the round and the velocity is shown on a digital display. <br /> <br /> == PC and Laptop Based Homemade Chronometers ==<br /> <br /> It is fairly easy to construct a usable shooting chronometer from readily available parts. If you have access to a PC or laptop then a chronometer is trivial to construct. The PC can be just about any old PC that has a Win98 or later (or about any version of a Mac) operating system. An old PC that has been retired makes an excellent &quot;data acquisition system&quot; for a homemade chronometer.<br /> <br /> Since most guns operate in the subsonic to supersonic range any device designed to work with audio signals will have suitable characteristics.<br /> <br /> Most PCs and Laptops made in the last 15 years came equipped with a sound card. The sound card is an analog to digital (A/D) and digital to analog (D/A) converter. Sound cards are usually dual channel (left and right stereo channels), sample at up to 48,000 (48KHz) samples per second at 8 or 16 bits resolution per sample. Therefore, the typical sound card is a fairly powerful data acquisition system. It is possible to buy better data acquisition systems (i.e., laboratory grade equipment) but they are expensive. For our purposes, the sound card is more than adequate and readily available. <br /> <br /> == Sound Based Homemade Chronometer ==<br /> <br /> The simplest way to use the sound card as a chronometer is to just use a microphone to record the sound of the gun firing at a solid target. The audio recording will have a signal at the moment the projectile left the barrel and another when it strikes the target. If the microphone is positioned the same distance from the muzzle and the target then the average velocity of the round is simply the distance from the muzzle to the target divided by the flight time. If the target is reasonably close to the muzzle, within say a few feet, then the average velocity is essentially the same as the muzzle velocity.<br /> <br /> There are a couple software packages that are of use in a PC audio based chronometer. [http://audacity.sourceforge.net Audacity] is an excellent freeware sound recording, visualization and analysis package. Audacity can be used to both record the audio and measure the flight time.<br /> <br /> [http://talonairgun.com/softchrono/ SoftChrono] is a freeware Windows application specifically designed for using a microphone plus soundcard as a shooting chronometer.<br /> <br /> == Optical Input to a Sound Card Based Chronometer ==<br /> <br /> Recordings that are somewhat simpler to interpret can be made if the microphone is replaced with a pair of optical detectors such as phototransistors. This optical approach eliminates any possible confusion caused by echoes and gives a signal that is much easier to interpret.<br /> <br /> For example, using the setup described [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Jims_chrono.html here], the recording below was obtained for the firing of a [[BB machine gun]];<br /> [[Image:long_burst_part.jpg]]<br /> <br /> Each pair of peaks represents a single BB passing over the two photo detector gates. The gates were three inches apart and the first gate an inch or two from the gun's muzzle. The velocity of each BB is calculated as the time between peaks (in seconds) divided by the distance between the two gates. Based on this recording, this particular BBMG is firing at about 330 FPS (the velocity varies from round to round) and with a rate of fire of ~4800 rounds per minute.<br /> <br /> [[Category:Tools]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Chamber_to_barrel_ratio&diff=3961 2008-06-04T17:53:05Z

<p>Jimmy101: spelling and word choice</p> <hr /> <div>The '''Chamber to Barrel ratio''', or '''C:B ratio''', is the ratio of the volume of the [[chamber]] and [[barrel]]; <br /> <br /> &lt;table border=0&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;(Volume Chamber)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''C:B Ratio'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;(Volume Barrel)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;<br /> <br /> The volume of a cylindrical shape can be calculated with the following formula, where &quot;r&quot; stands for the radius of the inner diameter of the pipe and &quot;h&quot; stands for height, which is the same as length:<br /> :'''V = π x r² x h'''<br /> <br /> Make sure you use the same units for both the radius and length of both your barrel and your chamber. Note that elbows or other parts also count as part of the volume. If you want to be even more precise in calculating the volume of some shape, you could [[water measuring|water measure]] it.<br /> <br /> The ratio determines how much of the available energy is transferred to the projectile. A good C:B ratio is a major factor in [[combustion cannon]] performance. The goal of an optimal ratio is to have the barrel end at the exact point where the projectile stops accelerating.<br /> <br /> Higher ratio (shorter barrel) cannons are louder since significant [[pressure]] is still present in the chamber when the projectile exits the barrel. The high pressure results in a significantly louder &quot;bang&quot; from the gun, similar to the loud pop from the opening of a pressurized bottle of Champagne. Too low a ratio will also hurt performance since a vacuum is formed behind the projectile if it travels too far or if the [[combustion process|combustion]] gases cool significantly before the projectile exits the barrel. In extreme cases of low C:B ratio the projectile may even be sucked back into the chamber. [http://www.burntlatke.com/15cb-testday.html]<br /> <br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/launch.html Experiments] have shown that a C:B ratio of about 0.6-0.8:1 is the most efficient for a given chamber using potatoes as projectiles. The ratio will vary somewhat depending on the weight, friction, diameter and blow by of a particular projectile, as well as the [[fuel]], [[ignition source|ignition type]] and perhaps other variables. In most cases though, the optimal C:B is expected to be in the 0.6 to 0.8 range.<br /> <br /> == C:B Ratio Studies ==<br /> <br /> The actual affect of changing the C:B ratio on the [[muzzle velocity]] for a typical gun is shown in the two graphs below (data from [http://www.burntlatke.com/launch.html BurntLatke].) The first graph gives the muzzle velocity as a function of barrel length, the second graph the barrel length axis has been converted to C:B ratios.<br /> <br /> [[Image:BurntLatke_CB_barrel_length_graph_15_spuds.gif]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:BurntLatke_CB_graph_15_spuds.gif]]<br /> <br /> As you can see from the graphs, this particular chamber / barrel / fuel / [[ammo]] combination gives the greatest muzzle velocity (521 FPS) with an 11 foot long barrel. The C:B for this barrel is 0.60.<br /> <br /> The two graphs also indicate another key characteristic of the affect of the C:B ratio on the performance of a combustion spudgun. '''The muzzle velocity is fairly insensitive to small changes in the C:B near the optimal C:B.''' For this gun, removing 3.6 feet from the barrel, 1/3 of the barrels total length, to a C:B=0.90 only dropped the muzzle velocity by 10 FPS. That is less than a 2% change in the muzzle velocity for a 33% shorter barrel. Similarly, increasing the barrel from 11' to 13.3' (C:B=0.5) only decreased the muzzle velocity from 521 FPS to 514 FPS. For both the shorter and longer barrels the decrease in the average muzzle velocity is less than the ~5% shot-to-shot variability of this gun and ammo.<br /> <br /> The combination of a broad and flat velocity versus C:B (or barrel length) curve and the relatively high shot-to-shot variability for shooting spuds, suggests that the C:B ratio does not have to be all that close to the optimal to get essentially optimal performance from a gun. For the gun used to generate the graphs above, shortening the barrel by 1/3 from the optimal length had essentially no affect on the performance of the gun. The red boxes on the two graphs indicate the range of barrel lengths and C:B ratios for which the muzzle velocity is within 5% of the optimal.<br /> <br /> If you can tolerate a slightly larger performance drop of say 10%, then the C:B can range from 0.5 to ~1.2.<br /> <br /> Note that this affect is only true over this 0.5~1.2 C:B ratio range. Outside of this range the muzzle velocity drops off very rapidly. For this gun / ammo / fuel combination, a C:B of 0.3 drops the velocity from 521 FPS to 330 FPS. A C:B of 1.4 drops the velocity from 521 FPS to 340 FPS.<br /> <br /> A statistical analysis of this set of velocity versus barrel length data indicates that there is no statistically significant difference for C:Bs in the range of 0.5 to 1.2. (Student's T-Test, unequal variance, two tailed, P&lt;0.05). Note that this does not mean there is no difference over this range of C:Bs. Instead, it says '''this study was unable to measure the difference'''. It appears that the relatively high shot-to-shot variability is obscuring the fine details of the relationship between barrel length (or C:B) and muzzle velocity.<br /> <br /> One might ask the question &quot;Can't the optimal C:B ratio be easily calculated&quot;? A simple minded approach would be to calculate the barrel volume at which the pressure in the chamber is equal to atmospheric pressure plus the force required to overcome dynamic friction between the spud and the barrel. If we assume atmospheric pressure is 15 PSIa (absolute) and that a typical spud in a 2&quot; barrel has 5 PSI of friction then the spud will continue to accelerate until the chamber pressure has dropped below 15+5=20 PSIa. The combustion of [[propane]] in air generates about 135 PSIa of pressure. The ratio of the combustion pressure to the minimal pressure, 135/20=6.75, is the ratio of the chamber to the ''chamber plus the optimal barrel''. Therefore, this simple minded approach says that the optimal C:B should be 1/(6.75-1)=0.17. This C:B would give a barrel nearly five times longer than the observed optimal barrels. Indeed, according to the BurntLatke studies, a spud won't even exit the barrel at a C:B this low. Clearly, there are more complex factors affecting the optimal C:B ratio of a combustion spudgun. Suggestively, the optimal C:B ratio for pneumatic guns, as predicted by [[GGDT]] are in the vicinity of 0.2~0.3, close to the simple minded calculation outlined above.<br /> <br /> == Theories on the C:B Ratio ==<br /> <br /> Several theories exist explaining the optimal barrel for a particular chamber. A brief summary of three are given below.<br /> <br /> 1. A chamber volume that exceeds the optimal value for efficiency will increase performance since more energy is available within the chamber. This theory is based on the &quot;fast combustion model&quot; in which the fuel burns quickly relative to the movement of the projectile. The pressure rises to it's maximum before the projectile has moved a significant distance down the barrel. When designing a launcher using this theory, a larger chamber will produce better performance.<br /> <br /> 2. The most efficient ratio will usually also produce the highest performance. (Internal combustion engines fall into this category, the most efficient engine speed usually also produces the most power.) This theory is based on a &quot;slow combustion model&quot;. A chamber that is too large takes longer to burn the fuel, the pressure rises more slowly, the projectile starts to move through the barrel at lower pressures and the exits before maximum pressure is reached. This results in lower projectile speed. This model is similar to a slow opening pneumatic valve. If the chamber is grossly oversized, combustion may not complete until after the projectile leaves the barrel, further reducing performance. When designing a launcher, the chamber and barrel should be matched to each other for optimal performance. A ratio anywhere between 0.5:1 and 1:1 will be ideal under most circumstances.<br /> <br /> 3. A hybrid &quot;slow / fast combustion model&quot;. In the first two models the combustion process is considered to be independent of the projectile's movement through the barrel. In the &quot;hybrid&quot; model the movement of the projectile affects the burning process. In particular, movement of the projectile allows the gases in the chamber to move, this causes turbulence which in turn increases the rate at which the fuel burns. This model may explain the broad flat velocity versus C:B (or barrel length) graphs. A slow moving projectile has a slow fuel burn speed, a fast moving projectile gives a faster burn speed. The slow moving projectile takes longer to exit the barrel and there is more time for the fuel to burn. A fast moving projectile takes less time to exit but it's movement makes the fuel burn faster. <br /> <br /> Interestingly, gasoline engines display this characteristic &quot;projectile speed&quot; versus fuel burn speed relationship. The time available for the fuel-air mixture to burn in an engine is dependent on the RPMs the engine is running at. At high RPMs there is less time for the fuel to burn compared to low RPMs. (In most simple gasoline engines the fuel injected per combustion cycle is independent of the engines RPM.) Studies of the fuel burn rate as a function of the engine RPMs indicate that the fuel burns faster at high RPMs than at low and that combustion occurs thoughout most of the power stroke.<br /> <br /> Very little hard data is available to help differentiate between these and other possible models. <br /> <br /> == Summary ==<br /> <br /> C:B ratios are good for predicting what barrel will yield the highest performance given a fixed chamber volume. In addition, the C:B ratio will be indicative of the noise output of the gun. With sufficient data, the C:B ratio will also be useful for determining what chamber volume will deliver optimal performance given a fixed barrel. However, a single highly precise value should not be interpreted as the optimal value for all cannons.<br /> <br /> == Other Aspects of C:B Ratios ==<br /> <br /> [[Burst disk]]s can be used to increase the performance of high ratio (short barrel) cannons, since they let higher pressure build up before the projectile starts to move. They will not increase the performance significantly in near optimal cannons. [http://www.advancedspuds.com/burstdisk.htm Source]<br /> <br /> [[Multiple spark gaps]], spark position and a [[Chamber fan]] may also affect the optimal C:B for a particular cannon. Currently there is relatively little reliable data on the affect of these parameters on the optimal C:B ratio.<br /> <br /> The C:B ratio plays a much smaller role in the design of [[pneumatic cannon]]s since factors like chamber charge pressure and valve performance play a greater role in determining overall performance. It is advisable to use [[GGDT]] to determine the best design for pneumatic cannons.<br /> <br /> [[category:Concepts]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Muzzle_loading&diff=3960 2008-06-04T17:47:47Z

<p>Jimmy101: Rearraganged and the english was cleaned up.</p> <hr /> <div>The standard way of doing things, because it is the cheapest and easiest to make; in fact, it is not possible to make a launcher that cannot be muzzle-loaded.<br /> <br /> To muzzle-load a spudgun:<br /> * Get a (straight) stick or a length of PVC pipe that fits in the barrel to use as a ramrod. It is helpful to make a mark on the ramrod indicating how far it needs to be inserted into the barrel to push the projectile to the proper depth. This will help to consistently position the spud. The mark will also make it less likely that the projectile is pushed too far and ends up in the guns chamber (for combustion guns) or so close to the valve that it interferes with the valves operation (in pneumatics). <br /> * Cut your projectile to size, either by pushing your projectile over your [[muzzle knife]] or a separate spud cutter. Cutting the ammo to size using a knife is not recommended since the resulting ammo will fit the barrel poorly.<br /> * Ram that projectile home. Firm, steady pressure works best. If you cannot get the projectile to go down the barrel you may need to provide some sort of vent to release the air trapped between the ammo and chamber. <br /> <br /> There are several methods to vent the trapped air. <br /> * A groove can be cut in the ammo to allow the trapped air to escape. This is probably not the best solutions since, in general, you want an airtight fit between the ammo and barrel. <br /> * If you are loading a standard [[Combustion cannon|combustion gun]], you can simply remove cleanout plug to prevent pressurization of the [[chamber]]. <br /> * A small (~1/16&quot;) vent hole can be drilled at the base of the barrel to allow the air to escape. <br /> * Instead of a hole, a small [[valve]] can be installed as the vent. This prevents air or hot combustion gases from shooting out of the vent during firing, thus decreasing performance and/or burning the operator.<br /> * For [[Pneumatic cannon|pneumatic launchers]], it is sometimes possible to open a bleed port on the valve, or to simply open the gun's pressurization fitting to allow the air to escape as the projectile is rammed home.<br /> <br /> It is recommended that you sharpen your muzzle if you are planning to shoot produce ([[potato|spuds]], zucchinis, etc.). This is called a &quot;muzzle knife&quot; or [[spud cutter]]. If just the outside edge of the muzzle is sharpened, a &quot;single bevel knife&quot;, the ammo will be cut so that it's outside diameter is the same as the barrel's inside diameter. The fit will be very nearly air tight. For combustion guns, somewhat better performance can be obtained by adding a small bevel to the inside of the muzzle as well, a &quot;double bevel knife&quot;. With a double bevel knife the ammo is cut so that it's diameter is slightly larger then the internal diamter of the barrel. As the ammo is loaded it is compressed giving a very tight fit, very little gas leakage when firing, and increased static friction which is beneficial for combustion guns.<br /> <br /> If you do not feel safe having a cutter on the end of your gun, you can instead keep your spud cutter as a separate instrument.<br /> <br /> It is generally '''not''' a good idea to load a gun that is otherwise ready to fire. For combustion guns this is generally not a problem since the ammo is an integral part of the chamber. It would be very difficult to properly fuel a combustion gun without having the ammo already in the barrel.<br /> <br /> A pneumatic gun should have the ammo loaded before the chamber is pressurized. Some pneumatic gun designs will vent some air out of the barrel when the chamber is pressurized. This may make it impossible to muzzle load before pressurization of the chamber. In this type of gun extreme care should be taken while muzzle loading.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=3959 2008-06-04T17:11:33Z

<p>Jimmy101: fixed the muzzle velocity link ,changed PVC cleaner to PVC primer</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an [[Ignition source|ignition<br /> system]] and bought a bag of [[potato|russets]]. What should you use for [[fuel]] to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> [[Combustion cannon|combustion spud gun]]. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the [[chamber]] will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels ([[propane]], [[butane]], flammable [[aerosol]]s etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of [[Combustion process|combustion]]. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant [[pressure]] so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a [[Fuel meter|pressurized<br /> meter system]]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and [[acetylene]], both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; [[MAPP]]&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;References: http://members.nuvox.net/F%7Eon.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> &lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ol&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the [[spark gap]], [[Chamber fan|fan]] or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive [[Starting fluid|starter fluid]] is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> [[muzzle velocity]] is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting [[potato|spuds]] is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC [[primer]] and [[PVC Glue|glue]]. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate [[chronometer]] to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=BB_machine_gun&diff=3844 2008-06-02T18:25:14Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Design Characteristics */ seems we lost some sentences at the end of this section, added something so it ends logically.</p> <hr /> <div>A '''BB Machine Gun''' (BBMG) is a device designed to shoot a large volume of small diameter [[ammo]], typically steel BBs or plastic airsoft BBs. Most BBMGs are pneumatic guns, with air consumption much greater than that of a normal [[pneumatic launcher]]. The common use of a large air [[compressor]] makes the majority of BBMG designs less then portable, though models using CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; systems have been successfully built and used as portable units.<br /> <br /> == Common Designs ==<br /> <br /> * A [[cloud chamber]] agitates the projectiles by blowing the air stream up through them. The agitated BBs then get sucked into the [[barrel]].<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex block]] blows the BBs around and around the inside of larg-ish diameter hole, which has a tangential hole leading to the barrel drilled in it.<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex cap]] blows the BBs around similar to a vortex block but is used in smaller situations. Designed by Gatorlangman AKA DavidVaini the design incorporates a standard PVC or metal cap as the vortex wall. This results in a smaller design and can be incorporated into smaller projects.<br /> <br /> == Design Characteristics ==<br /> <br /> The performance of a BBMG, as with any gun, depends on several characteristics of the gun. For BBMGs, perhaps the most important are;<br /> * Air reservoir [[pressure]]<br /> * Air reservoir capacity<br /> * Air flow rate from the reservoir to the barrel<br /> * Barrel length<br /> * How well the ammo fits the barrel<br /> <br /> Most of the characteristics that make a good pneumatic spudgun also apply to BBMGs. As with any pneumatic gun, the higher the reservoir pressure and the longer the barrel (up to a point) the greater the [[muzzle velocity]]. Because of the large amount of compressed gas that is wasted in a typical BBMG, the reservoir capacity needs to be fairly large and [[CB ratio]]s of 100:1 to 1000:1 are common. Note that, for a BBMG, the &quot;[[chamber]] volume&quot; includes the volume of the compressor's reservoir. <br /> <br /> The ammo should fit the barrel well enough to minimize [[blowby]] (leakage of air around the ammo) but not so tightly that friction slows it down significantly as it moves through the barrel.<br /> <br /> The chambering and firing of BBs in a BBMG appears to be coupled processes. Usually, when a BB is transiting the barrel the reduced air flow through the gun inhibits the loading of the next BB into the barrel. When the first BB leaves the barrel the increase in air flow &quot;chambers&quot; the next BB. As a result it appears that there is rarely more than one BB in the barrel at a time. This suggests that the muzzle velocity and ROF of these types of BBMGs are linked. It appears that the ROF for a gun is often very close to the reciprocal of the barrel transit time. For example, a 3 foot barrel that fires at 300 FPS has an average barrel velocity of ~150 FPS and a transit time of ~20mS. The ROF would be expected to be about 1/20mS = 50 RPS. Design changes that alter the transit time would be expected to also change the ROF.<br /> <br /> == Typical Performance ==<br /> <br /> '''Airsoft BBMG Performance'''<br /> <br /> Airsoft BBMGs are known for their high rate of fire (ROF). The ROF for Airsoft BBMGs is in the vicinity of 30 to 115 rounds per second (RPS), 1800 to 6900 rounds per minute. This extremely high ROF helps in Airsoft skirmishes for laying down suppressive fire or clearing out multiple targets up close. The Velocity of Airsoft BBMG's are actually quite good compared to Airsoft Electric Guns or AEG. The velocity of Airsoft BBMG's can vary anywhere from 250-400 Feet Per Second(FPS) which is in the range of higher end AEG's such as TM, CA or G&amp;G. The advantage of the high ROF is quite clear in Airsoft Skirmishes however it is also a disadvantage. Since Airsoft BBMGs have such a high ROF they consume a lot of BB's which can get costly($). <br /> <br /> The other disadvantage of BBMG's is their portability and range. Portability can be fixed by using an external CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; setup however that can get costly. The other problem with Airsoft BBMG's is their range. The range of BBMG's lack because of no hopup system or backspin created on the BB to keep it traveling straight. This can be solved by adding a hopup system however they wear down quickly because of the high ROF. So as you can tell, the high ROF of Airsoft BBMG's has its advantages but also its disadvantages. A truly bitter sweet situation.<br /> <br /> '''Copper/Steel BBMG Performance'''<br /> <br /> Copper/Steel BBMGs, even if very simply constructed from readily available materials, are capable of very high rates of fire (ROF). The ROF for typical guns is in the vicinity of 30 to 100 rounds per second (RPS), 1800 to 6000 rounds per minute. This rate of fire is much higher than military machine guns, which fire at ~9 RPS. Only the military [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigun Minigun], a modern Gatling machine gun, with a ROF of 33~66 RPS fires this fast. So, BBMGs are very impressive in terms of their ROFs.<br /> <br /> The muzzle velocity of typical Copper/Steel BBMGs is much less impressive than their ROFs. With 3 foot length of 1/4&quot; OD (3/16&quot; ID) stainless steel tubing, a 120 PSIG 3 gallon shop compressor and firing standard copper/steel BBs, a typical vortex BBMG has a muzzle velocity of about 330 FPS (data from [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Jims_chrono.html here]). This muzzle velocity is about the same as a cheap commercial single shot BB gun. The muzzle energy for an 0.177&quot; copper/steel BB (0.33g) at 330 FPS is 1.2 foot-pounds (1.7J). Even though the muzzle velocity of most BBMGs is relatively low, the large number of BBs that strike the target in a short period of time can do a fair amount of damage.<br /> <br /> The very high ROF of most Copper/Steel BBMGs consumes BBs at an alarming rate. A six pound container of copper/steel BBs costs about $15 and contains 6000 BBs. At 50 RPS that six pound container will last for two minutes of firing.<br /> <br /> Most Copper/Steel BBMGs are not capable of sustained firing since the air source cannot provide an adequate flow of air at sufficiently high pressure. To reduce air consumption (and hence maintain muzzle velocity), and to reduce the rate that the ammos is expended, Copper/Steel BBMGs are typically fired in short bursts lasting a few seconds at most.<br /> <br /> == Links ==<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/bb.html Latke's BBMG]: An excellent write-up on how to build a Vortex BBMG.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Talk:BB_machine_gun&diff=3843 2008-06-02T18:10:06Z

<p>Jimmy101: </p> <hr /> <div>6/2/08<br /> <br /> '''Davidvaini''', nice job on adding the airsoft data, it looks good.<br /> <br /> Could you add the barrel type and length and the air source pressure you used for the ROF and velocities you quoted? Are those numbers for a 120PSIG compressor or a CO2 setup? Perhaps a description of the ammo as well (6mm at 0.2g or 0.25g or ?). Is there a link you can add, perhaps to a post in the spudfiles forum, describing the particular gun?<br /> <br /> I made some changes to the hop-up portion. Feel free to nuke what I changed. I was trying to bend the discussion more towards a hop-up increasing the accuracy, which in turn increases the ''effective range''. Instead of simply saying the hop-up increases the range. My understanding is that a hop-up actually decreases range somewhat, but the increased accuracy increases the ''effective range''.<br /> <br /> I wonder if we should add a section comparing airsoft to copper/steel bbs? You really can't compare the performance based just on the muzzle velocity for the two ammos.<br /> <br /> '''frontal areas:'''<br /> <br /> 6mm area=28mm^2<br /> <br /> 0.177&quot; (4.5mm) area=16mm^2<br /> <br /> '''masses:'''<br /> <br /> 6mm airsoft = 0.2g or 0.25g or ...<br /> <br /> 0.177&quot; copper/steel bb = 0.33g<br /> <br /> '''sectional densities:'''<br /> <br /> 0.2g or 0.25g 6mm airsoft = 0.007g/mm^2 or 0.009g/mm^2<br /> <br /> 0.177&quot; copper/steel bb = 0.02g/mm^2<br /> <br /> So, at the same muzzle velocities the copper/steel BB will have a higher muzzle energy and should carry farther (smaller sectional density) than the airsoft.<br /> jimmy101</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=BB_machine_gun&diff=3842 2008-06-02T17:51:47Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Typical Performance */ missing spaces, a few minor word choices</p> <hr /> <div>A '''BB Machine Gun''' (BBMG) is a device designed to shoot a large volume of small diameter [[ammo]], typically steel BBs or plastic airsoft BBs. Most BBMGs are pneumatic guns, with air consumption much greater than that of a normal [[pneumatic launcher]]. The common use of a large air [[compressor]] makes the majority of BBMG designs less then portable, though models using CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; systems have been successfully built and used as portable units.<br /> <br /> == Common Designs ==<br /> <br /> * A [[cloud chamber]] agitates the projectiles by blowing the air stream up through them. The agitated BBs then get sucked into the [[barrel]].<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex block]] blows the BBs around and around the inside of larg-ish diameter hole, which has a tangential hole leading to the barrel drilled in it.<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex cap]] blows the BBs around similar to a vortex block but is used in smaller situations. Designed by Gatorlangman AKA DavidVaini the design incorporates a standard PVC or metal cap as the vortex wall. This results in a smaller design and can be incorporated into smaller projects.<br /> <br /> == Design Characteristics ==<br /> <br /> The performance of a BBMG, as with any gun, depends on several characteristics of the gun. For BBMGs, perhaps the most important are;<br /> * Air reservoir [[pressure]]<br /> * Air reservoir capacity<br /> * Barrel length<br /> * How well the ammo fits the barrel<br /> <br /> Most of the characteristics that make a good pneumatic spudgun also apply to BBMGs. As with any pneumatic gun, the higher the reservoir pressure and the longer the barrel (up to a point) the greater the [[muzzle velocity]]. Because of the large amount of compressed gas that is wasted in a typical BBMG, the reservoir capacity needs to be fairly large and [[CB ratio]]s of 100:1 to 1000:1 are common. Note that, for a BBMG, the &quot;[[chamber]] volume&quot; includes the volume of the compressor's reservoir. <br /> <br /> The ammo should fit the barrel well enough to minimize [[blowby]] (leakage of air around the ammo) but not so tightly that friction slows it down significantly as it moves through the barrel.<br /> <br /> The chambering and firing of BBs in a BBMG appears to be coupled processes. Usually, when a BB is transiting the barrel, the reduced air flow through the gun inhibits the loading of the next BB into the barrel. When the preceding BB leaves the barrel the increase in air flow &quot;chambers&quot; the next round. This suggests that the muzzle velocity and ROF of these types of BBMGs are linked. Design changes that increase the muzzle velocity (for example by using a longer barrel).<br /> <br /> == Typical Performance ==<br /> <br /> '''Airsoft BBMG Performance'''<br /> <br /> Airsoft BBMGs are known for their high rate of fire (ROF). The ROF for Airsoft BBMGs is in the vicinity of 30 to 115 rounds per second (RPS), 1800 to 6900 rounds per minute. This extremely high ROF helps in Airsoft skirmishes for laying down suppressive fire or clearing out multiple targets up close. The Velocity of Airsoft BBMG's are actually quite good compared to Airsoft Electric Guns or AEG. The velocity of Airsoft BBMG's can vary anywhere from 250-400 Feet Per Second(FPS) which is in the range of higher end AEG's such as TM, CA or G&amp;G. The advantage of the high ROF is quite clear in Airsoft Skirmishes however it is also a disadvantage. Since Airsoft BBMGs have such a high ROF they consume a lot of BB's which can get costly($). <br /> <br /> The other disadvantage of BBMG's is their portability and range. Portability can be fixed by using an external CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; setup however that can get costly. The other problem with Airsoft BBMG's is their range. The range of BBMG's lack because of no hopup system or backspin created on the BB to keep it traveling straight. This can be solved by adding a hopup system however they wear down quickly because of the high ROF. So as you can tell, the high ROF of Airsoft BBMG's has its advantages but also its disadvantages. A truly bitter sweet situation.<br /> <br /> '''Copper/Steel BBMG Performance'''<br /> <br /> Copper/Steel BBMGs, even if very simply constructed from readily available materials, are capable of very high rates of fire (ROF). The ROF for typical guns is in the vicinity of 30 to 100 rounds per second (RPS), 1800 to 6000 rounds per minute. This rate of fire is much higher than military machine guns, which fire at ~9 RPS. Only the military [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigun Minigun], a modern Gatling machine gun, with a ROF of 33~66 RPS fires this fast. So, BBMGs are very impressive in terms of their ROFs.<br /> <br /> The muzzle velocity of typical Copper/Steel BBMGs is much less impressive than their ROFs. With 3 foot length of 1/4&quot; OD (3/16&quot; ID) stainless steel tubing, a 120 PSIG 3 gallon shop compressor and firing standard copper/steel BBs, a typical vortex BBMG has a muzzle velocity of about 330 FPS (data from [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Jims_chrono.html here]). This muzzle velocity is about the same as a cheap commercial single shot BB gun. The muzzle energy for an 0.177&quot; copper/steel BB (0.33g) at 330 FPS is 1.2 foot-pounds (1.7J). Even though the muzzle velocity of most BBMGs is relatively low, the large number of BBs that strike the target in a short period of time can do a fair amount of damage.<br /> <br /> The very high ROF of most Copper/Steel BBMGs consumes BBs at an alarming rate. A six pound container of copper/steel BBs costs about $15 and contains 6000 BBs. At 50 RPS that six pound container will last for two minutes of firing.<br /> <br /> Most Copper/Steel BBMGs are not capable of sustained firing since the air source cannot provide an adequate flow of air at sufficiently high pressure. To reduce air consumption (and hence maintain muzzle velocity), and to reduce the rate that the ammos is expended, Copper/Steel BBMGs are typically fired in short bursts lasting a few seconds at most.<br /> <br /> == Links ==<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/bb.html Latke's BBMG]: An excellent write-up on how to build a Vortex BBMG.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Common_Ammo&diff=3841 2008-06-02T17:33:13Z

<p>Jimmy101: </p> <hr /> <div>02/06/08 I took out the data for 4&quot; long potatoes, since anyone can tell this will just be twice the weight of a 2&quot; slug. I also added in an apple and a citrus fruit entry. Density of these fruits are estimated based on how well they float.<br /> <br /> I think the CD of the sports ball ammo could perhaps be put on a different page or at leas a separate table since there isn't data for any other ammo now or future additions.<br /> ----------------------------------<br /> 02/06/08 I've added the short and long spud data back into the table. I agree that it is trivial to go from one to the other but that assumes people are even aware that some spudders shoot half-spuds and others shoot full-spuds. The difference in things like muzzle velocity, range, hang-time and KE are hugely different between half and full spuds. I shoot half spuds (and occasionaly post chrono data), all of Latke's data is for half spuds. I suspect the typical new spudder shoots full spuds. <br /> <br /> I think the Cd data should be left on this page. People are working on determining the Cd of other ammo, like spuds. It really isn't all that hard to collect tha data needed to calculate the Cd of an ammo. You just need a chrono and a stopwatch. Besides, the Cd of an ammo is an important parameter of the ammo, the fact that it is missing (especially for common ammos like spuds) tells the reader that it probably isn't worth the effort to try to google for a value.<br /> jimmy101</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Ammo&diff=3840 2008-06-02T17:18:40Z

<p>Jimmy101: added the half and full potato data back to the table, corrected sig. figs.</p> <hr /> <div>== Description of the table columns: ==<br /> <br /> ; Ammo : The type of ammo. For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this gives a typical length of the ammo. The length of the ammo and the barrel diameter determine the actual size of the ammo. For spuds, there is more than one way to [[potato#Selection, cutting and use|cut]] the shell.<br /> ; Mass : The mass of the ammo in ounces (oz.) and grams.<br /> ; Diameter : The diameter of the ammo in inches (&quot;) and centimeters (cm). For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this is the barrel diameter. For ammo that is not cut, such as golf balls, this is the ammo's normal diameter.<br /> ; Cd : Coeficient of drag. The Cd of a particular ammo is usually dependent on the velocity of the ammo and whether or not it is spinning or tumbling.<br /> ; Terminal Velocity : The maximum velocity the ammo will reach when dropped, in air, form a great height.<br /> ; Barrel : Suggestions as suitable barrels for the particular ammo. Primarily for ammo that has a defined size, such as a tennis ball.<br /> ; Other Info : Various other bits of information concerning the ammo.<br /> <br /> '''Table Notes'''<br /> # The Cd values for the various sport balls (tennis ball, golfball ...) were calculated based on their terminal velocities using the equation &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=2&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;mg&lt;/span&gt;/(&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;A&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;terminal&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) with g=9.8m/s and &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;=1290g/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. The terminal velocities were from [http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/CTNJune2002.pdf Terminal Velocity Teachers Notes] and [http://www.gantless.com/paper.html A Penny in Free Fall].<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;<br /> |+ '''Common Spud Gun Ammo'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''Ammo''' || '''Mass''' || '''Diameter''' || '''Cd''' || '''Terminal&lt;br/&gt;Velocity''' || '''Barrel''' ||''' Other Info''' <br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Fruit + Vegetables'''<br /> |-<br /> | half [[Potato]], 2&quot;L || 2.5 oz., 72g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | half [[Potato]], 2&quot;L || 5.0 oz., 120g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; <br /> |-<br /> | full [[Potato]], 4&quot;L || 5.1 oz., 140g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | full [[Potato]], 4&quot;L || 10 oz., 240g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | Apple, || 4.2 oz., 110g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || align=left| <br /> * density ~0.95g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | Citrus Fruit, || 3.5 oz., 100g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~0.9g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Balls'''<br /> |- <br /> | Ping-Pong Ball || 0.095 oz., 2.7g || 0.95&quot;, cm || 0.460 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 9m/s, 30fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | [[Golf ball]] || 1.59 oz., 45g || 1.68&quot;, 4.27cm || 0.299 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 40m/s, 132fps || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Tennis_ball|Tennis Ball]] || 2.08 oz., 59g || 2.56&quot;, 6.5cm || 0.283 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 31m/s, 102fps ||align=left|<br /> * 2.5&quot; SCH 40 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 21 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26<br /> || -<br /> |- <br /> | Baseball || 5.1 oz., 145g || 2.9&quot;, 7.4cm || 0.290 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 42m/s, 138fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | Basketball || 21.2 oz., 600g || 9.5&quot;, 24.1cm || 0.500 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 20m/s, 66fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Ball Bearings (BBs, Airsoft, Paintballs...)'''<br /> |-<br /> | 0.177&quot; Copper/Steel BB || 0.0116 oz, 0.33g || 0.177&quot;, 0.45cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | 6mm Airsoft || 0.0071 oz., 0.20g || 0.23&quot;, 0.6cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | .68&quot; [[Paintball]] || 0.1 oz., 3.2g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - ||align=left| * 0.5&quot; SDR 13.5 || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; glass [[marble]] || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Batteries'''<br /> |-<br /> | AA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | AAA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[C_Cell|C]] || 2.4-2.6 oz., 68-74g || 0.996&quot;, 2.53cm || - || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2&quot; (5.1cm) long<br /> * mass varies by brand<br /> |-<br /> | D || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Other Things'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[CO2_cartridge|12g CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Cartridge]]&lt;br&gt;(empty) || 1.05 oz., 30g || 0.73&quot;, 1.85cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 0.75&quot; SCH 40 PVC<br /> * 22mm Copper pipe <br /> || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Ice]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Pycrete]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | Film Canister || 0.5oz., 12g || 1.45&quot;, 3.7cm || - || - ||align=left|<br /> *1.25&quot; SCH 40 <br /> *40mm 10bar <br /> ||* Fits better with the right sized lid, still very good otherwise<br /> |-<br /> | [[Beverage_can|Soda Can]] || 13.0 oz., 369g&lt;br&gt;(water filled) || 2.6&quot;, 6.6cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26 <br /> * [[Sleeved]] 3&quot; SCH 40<br /> || -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Category:Projectiles]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Combustion_process&diff=3829 2008-06-02T01:57:56Z

<p>Jimmy101: Removed the reference to DR&#039;s flame front accelerator since it doesn&#039;t work. Various other changes.</p> <hr /> <div>The '''combustion process''' is an exothermic chemical reaction of a fuel with an oxidizer. In the context of [[combustion cannon]]s and [[hybrid]]s, this refers to the reaction of a hydrocarbon fuel (usually [[propane]]) with atmospheric oxygen (the oxidizer), producing carbon dioxide, water, and heat. The heat produces [[pressure]] that propels the projectile out the [[barrel]].<br /> <br /> This burning takes place in a &quot;flame front&quot;, typically a spherical or domed shaped region that spreads outwards from the [[ignition source]]. It is generally believed that the faster the flame front moves the better a combustion spudgun will perform. Techniques used by some to encourage the rapid spread of this flame front include:<br /> * Multiple ignition points to produce multiple flame fronts. This is usually accomplished via multiple [[spark gap]]s, or perhaps by use of a [[spark strip]].<br /> * Inducing turbulence in the gases through which the flame front is moving. This is usually accomplished via a [[chamber fan]].<br /> <br /> Tools and Information on the combustion process can be found at these links:<br /> <br /> [http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/combustion-boiler-fuels-t_9.html Helpful Tools]<br /> <br /> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion Wikipedia Combustion article]<br /> <br /> <br /> {{stub}}<br /> [[category:Concepts]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=BB_machine_gun&diff=3828 2008-06-02T01:47:09Z

<p>Jimmy101: Undo revision 3825 by Davidvaini (Talk)</p> <hr /> <div>A '''BB Machine Gun''' (BBMG) is a device designed to shoot a large volume of small diameter [[ammo]], typically steel BBs or plastic airsoft BBs. Most BBMGs are pneumatic guns, with air consumption much greater than that of a normal [[pneumatic launcher]]. The common use of a large air [[compressor]] makes the majority of BBMG designs less then portable, though models using CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; systems have been successfully built and used as portable units.<br /> <br /> == Common Designs ==<br /> <br /> * A [[cloud chamber]] agitates the projectiles by blowing the air stream up through them. The agitated BBs then get sucked into the [[barrel]].<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex block]] blows the BBs around and around the inside of larg-ish diameter hole, which has a tangential hole leading to the barrel drilled in it.<br /> <br /> * A [[vortex cap]] blows the BBs around similar to a vortex block but is used in smaller situations. Designed by Gatorlangman AKA DavidVaini the design incorporates a standard PVC or metal cap as the vortex wall. This results in a smaller design and can be incorporated into smaller projects.<br /> <br /> == Design Characteristics ==<br /> <br /> The performance of a BBMG, as with any gun, depends on several characteristics of the gun. For BBMGs, perhaps the most important are;<br /> * Air reservoir [[pressure]]<br /> * Air reservoir capacity<br /> * Barrel length<br /> * How well the ammo fits the barrel<br /> <br /> Most of the characteristics that make a good pneumatic spudgun also apply to BBMGs. As with any pneumatic gun, the higher the reservoir pressure and the longer the barrel (up to a point) the greater the [[muzzle velocity]]. Because of the large amount of compressed gas that is wasted in a typical BBMG, the reservoir capacity needs to be fairly large and [[CB ratio]]s of 100:1 to 1000:1 are common. Note that, for a BBMG, the &quot;[[chamber]] volume&quot; includes the volume of the compressor's reservoir. <br /> <br /> The ammo should fit the barrel well enough to minimize [[blowby]] (leakage of air around the ammo) but not so tightly that friction slows it down significantly as it moves through the barrel.<br /> <br /> The chambering and firing of BBs in a BBMG appears to be coupled processes. Usually, when a BB is transiting the barrel, the reduced air flow through the gun inhibits the loading of the next BB into the barrel. When the preceding BB leaves the barrel the increase in air flow &quot;chambers&quot; the next round. This suggests that the muzzle velocity and ROF of these types of BBMGs are linked. Design changes that increase the muzzle velocity (for example by using a longer barrel) will tend to decrease the ROF.<br /> <br /> == Typical Performance ==<br /> <br /> BBMGs, even if very simply constructed from readily available materials, are capable of very high rates of fire (ROF). The ROF for typical guns is in the vicinity of 30 to 100 rounds per second (RPS), 1800 to 6000 rounds per minute. This rate of fire is much higher than military machine guns, which fire at ~9 RPS. Only the military [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minigun Minigun], a modern Gatling machine gun, with a ROF of 33~66 RPS fires this fast. So, BBMGs are very impressive in terms of their ROFs.<br /> <br /> The muzzle velocity of typical BBMGs is much less impressive than their ROFs. With 3 foot length of 1/4&quot; OD (3/16&quot; ID) stainless steel tubing, a 120 PSIG 3 gallon shop compressor and firing standard copper/steel BBs, a typical vortex BBMG has a muzzle velocity of about 330 FPS (data from [http://www.inpharmix.com/jps/Jims_chrono.html here]). This muzzle velocity is about the same as a cheap commercial BB gun. The muzzle energy for an 0.177&quot; copper/steel BB (0.33g) at 330 FPS is 1.2 foot-pounds (1.7J).<br /> <br /> Even though the muzzle velocity of most BBMGs is relatively low, the large number of BBs that strike the target in a short period of time can do a fair amount of damage.<br /> <br /> The very high ROF of most BBMGs consumes BBs at an alarming rate. A six pound container of copper/steel BBs costs about $15 and contains 6000 BBs. At 50 RPS that six pound container will last for two minutes of firing.<br /> <br /> Most BBMGs are not capable of sustained firing since the air source cannot provide an adequate flow of air at sufficiently high pressure. To reduce air consumption (and hence maintain muzzle velocity), and to reduce the rate that the ammos is expended, BBMGs are typically fired in short bursts lasting a few seconds at most.<br /> <br /> == Links ==<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/bb.html Latke's BBMG]: An excellent write-up on how to build a Vortex BBMG.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Sprinkler_valve&diff=3711 2008-05-31T22:38:42Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* General Information */ Engrish</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Sprinkler_valve.jpg|frame|A Typical Electrically Operated Sprinkler Valve]]<br /> <br /> == General Information ==<br /> Sprinkler valves are the most commonly used valve on pneumatic launchers, and offer a number of desirable qualities. Because they are intended for use with home watering systems, sprinkler valves are readily available at nearly any location that sells PVC pipe and fittings. Sprinkler valves are intended for electronic actuation, however most are modified for pneumatic actuation, offering better performance in spudding applications.<br /> <br /> Unfortunately for spudders, sprinkler valves are not designed to open quickly since the speed of the valve has little affect on their intended use in sprinkler systems. In addition, the large number of internal turns decreases the flow by roughly 25% compared to a piston valve of the same seat diameter. Though muzzle velocity only decreases by about 10%.<br /> <br /> == Valve Actuation ==<br /> A sprinkler valve can be actuated, or opened, in a number of ways. Though they are intended to be opened by the application of 24VAC to the solenoid, many opt for a moddification allowing the [[pilot volume]] to be vented through another valve. Typically a [[Blowgun]] is used, though ball valves and even other sprinkler valves can do the job.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Electronic Actuation ===<br /> Though electronically actuated valves open slower and offer poorer performance over their pneumatically modified counterparts, many spudders prefer this method, since it does not require altering the valve in any way.<br /> <br /> Although most sprinkler valves are intended to operate on 24VAC, they can be successfully opened with 9-27VDC, usually applied by one, two, or three 9v batteries. The power source is wired in series with the solenoid and a switch. The solenoid will retract and the valve will open when voltage is applied.<br /> <br /> Stock sprinkler valves can be fired remotely using a simple electronic circuit. Check out the [[remotely activated valve]] tutorial for more information.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Pneumatic Actuation ===<br /> The performance of a valve can be improved by replacing the stock solenoid-valve vent with a [[pilot valve]] with more flow. Most often this is a blow gun, although for larger valves a ball valve or even a smaller sprinkler valve can be used. This operation is often called [[sprinkler valve modification|modding]] the valve.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Troubleshooting==<br /> If you are having problems with your sprinkler valve, these are some things to try<br /> <br /> ====Valve &quot;Honks&quot; or &quot;sounds like an airhorn&quot;====<br /> You need a larger pilot valve. For more information, see [[honking]].<br /> <br /> ====Valve won't seal====<br /> If your valve leaks air out the barrel there is a good chance that there is dirt, PVC shavings ''etc.'' in the valve preventing it from closing properly. An easy way to clean the valve it to just hook it up to a hose and flush water through it while cycling the valve a few times. If that doesn't fix the problem then you should disassemble the valve and clean the diaphragm and seat. Check for any plastic chips that may have entered the valve. Smear the diaphragm and seat with lithium grease to promote a seal.<br /> <br /> For other problems, visit the Sprinkler Valve Troubleshooting Guide [http://www.spudfiles.com/forums/sprinkler-valve-troubleshooting-guide-t8780.html]<br /> <br /> <br /> == More Information ==<br /> [[GGDT]]'s website has valve data for sprinklers in it's [http://www.thehalls-in-bfe.com/GGDT/library/library_menu.html design library]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[category:valves]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=3701 2008-05-31T15:00:19Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Combustion Launchers */ Added links to the combustion gun spark systems</p> <hr /> <div>== The Spudding Handbook ==<br /> Welcome to The Spudding Handbook! This wiki format handbook contains all of the information you will ever need to build spudguns, and much more besides. The purpose of this handbook is to explain the principles of spudguns and how they are built and operated. All of thin information contained in this handbook is free and available to anybody who wishes to view it.<br /> <br /> Look around and enjoy your stay.<br /> --[[User:BC Pneumatics|BC Pneumatics]] 02:13, 31 May 2008 (EDT)<br /> <br /> ==What is a Spudgun?==<br /> [[Image:Cannon.jpg|frame|An Advanced Combustion Cannon]]<br /> ''Main article: [[What_is_a_spudgun%3F|What is a spudgun?]]''<br /> <br /> There are many different names for spudguns. They are called potato cannons, spud launchers, potato guns, spud cannons, and a host of others. Whatever you decide to call it, all of the aforementioned describe the same type of device: a device used to accelerate a potato down the barrel, and shoot it some distance. While it may offend some purists, the humble little potato is quickly losing favor to other ammunitions such as golf balls, tennis balls, and other cheap, uniform projectiles.<br /> <br /> ==Types of Spudguns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Pneumatic Launchers ===<br /> ----<br /> A [[Pneumatic launcher]] uses the energy stored in compressed gas, most often times air that has been compressed by a bicycle pump or an air compressor. CO2 is also used semi-regularly, and compressed gases such as nitrogen and hydrogen have been used in the past. The air resides within the launcher's chamber, and is held back by a valve. When the valve is opened and the air is allowed to decompress, the ammunition is pushed in front of it down the barrel.<br /> <br /> === Combustion Launchers ===<br /> ----<br /> A [[Combustion launcher]] gets the energy it needs to launch a projectile from the combustion of combustable gases that are added to the chamber prior to ignition. Traditionally, combustion launchers are fueled by an aerosol product that use flammable gases for pressurization. Automotive starting fluid, hairsprays and body sprays are popular traditional fuels. Propane, butane and other pure combustable gases are prefered in more advanced guns. The combustable gases are most commonly ignited by a BBQ igniter ([[Lantern_sparker|flint]], [[BBQ_ignitor|piezo]] or electronic) or a [[Stun_gun|stun gun]]. The combustion of the fuel releases energy and creates a spike in pressure that propels the ammunition.<br /> <br /> ==Important &amp; Related Links==<br /> <br /> [[Index|Glossary/Index]]<br /> <br /> [[BCARMS]]<br /> <br /> [[Useful construction links]]<br /> <br /> [[Launcher configuration]]<br /> <br /> [[Computer Applications]]<br /> <br /> [[IPLA|International Potato Launching Association]]<br /> <br /> [[Safety]]<br /> <br /> [[Legal issues]]<br /> <br /> [[History]] (A Brief History of Spud Guns)<br /> <br /> [[SpudFiles forum guidelines]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> <br /> *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spud_gun Wikipedia's page on spudguns]<br /> *[http://www.bavetta.com/aircannon.html Air Cannon Barrel Length Numerical Analysis]<br /> *[http://www.thehalls-in-bfe.com/GGDT Gas Gun Design Tool, simulation program for pneumatic guns]<br /> *[http://www.spudfiles.com/forums/viewtopic.php?p=13324#13324 ATF Correspondence concerning spud gun legality]<br /> *[http://www.spudfiles.com SpudFiles Forum (aka The Spud Cannon Database)]<br /> *[http://www.spudtech.com Great source of spudgun information]<br /> *[http://www.BCARMS.com BCARMS - Spud Cannon Parts, Accessories, Kits and Launchers]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=3700 2008-05-31T14:51:52Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Combustion Launchers */ &quot;volatile gases&quot; is redundant , changed to &quot;combustable gases&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>== The Spudding Handbook ==<br /> Welcome to The Spudding Handbook! This wiki format handbook contains all of the information you will ever need to build spudguns, and much more besides. The purpose of this handbook is to explain the principles of spudguns and how they are built and operated. All of thin information contained in this handbook is free and available to anybody who wishes to view it.<br /> <br /> Look around and enjoy your stay.<br /> --[[User:BC Pneumatics|BC Pneumatics]] 02:13, 31 May 2008 (EDT)<br /> <br /> ==What is a Spudgun?==<br /> [[Image:Cannon.jpg|frame|An Advanced Combustion Cannon]]<br /> ''Main article: [[What_is_a_spudgun%3F|What is a spudgun?]]''<br /> <br /> There are many different names for spudguns. They are called potato cannons, spud launchers, potato guns, spud cannons, and a host of others. Whatever you decide to call it, all of the aforementioned describe the same type of device: a device used to accelerate a potato down the barrel, and shoot it some distance. While it may offend some purists, the humble little potato is quickly losing favor to other ammunitions such as golf balls, tennis balls, and other cheap, uniform projectiles.<br /> <br /> ==Types of Spudguns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Pneumatic Launchers ===<br /> ----<br /> A [[Pneumatic launcher]] uses the energy stored in compressed gas, most often times air that has been compressed by a bicycle pump or an air compressor. CO2 is also used semi-regularly, and compressed gases such as nitrogen and hydrogen have been used in the past. The air resides within the launcher's chamber, and is held back by a valve. When the valve is opened and the air is allowed to decompress, the ammunition is pushed in front of it down the barrel.<br /> <br /> === Combustion Launchers ===<br /> ----<br /> A [[Combustion launcher]] gets the energy it needs to launch a projectile from the combustion of combustable gases that are added to the chamber prior to ignition. Traditionally, combustion launchers are fueled by an aerosol product that use flammable gases for pressurization. Automotive starting fluid, hairsprays and body sprays are popular traditional fuels. Propane, butane and other pure combustable gases are prefered in more advanced guns. The combustable gases are most commonly ignited by a BBQ igniter (flint or electronic) or a stun gun. The combustion of the fuel releases energy and creates a spike in pressure that propels the ammunition.<br /> <br /> ==Important &amp; Related Links==<br /> <br /> [[Index|Glossary/Index]]<br /> <br /> [[BCARMS]]<br /> <br /> [[Useful construction links]]<br /> <br /> [[Launcher configuration]]<br /> <br /> [[Computer Applications]]<br /> <br /> [[IPLA|International Potato Launching Association]]<br /> <br /> [[Safety]]<br /> <br /> [[Legal issues]]<br /> <br /> [[History]] (A Brief History of Spud Guns)<br /> <br /> [[SpudFiles forum guidelines]]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> <br /> *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spud_gun Wikipedia's page on spudguns]<br /> *[http://www.bavetta.com/aircannon.html Air Cannon Barrel Length Numerical Analysis]<br /> *[http://www.thehalls-in-bfe.com/GGDT Gas Gun Design Tool, simulation program for pneumatic guns]<br /> *[http://www.spudfiles.com/forums/viewtopic.php?p=13324#13324 ATF Correspondence concerning spud gun legality]<br /> *[http://www.spudfiles.com SpudFiles Forum (aka The Spud Cannon Database)]<br /> *[http://www.spudtech.com Great source of spudgun information]<br /> *[http://www.BCARMS.com BCARMS - Spud Cannon Parts, Accessories, Kits and Launchers]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Sprinkler_valve&diff=3699 2008-05-31T14:43:00Z

<p>Jimmy101: water hammer probably not the reason for the slow opening of sprinkler valves.</p> <hr /> <div>[[Image:Sprinkler_valve.jpg|frame|A Typical Electrically Operated Sprinkler Valve]]<br /> <br /> == General Information ==<br /> Sprinkler valves are the most commonly used valve on pneumatic launchers, and offer a number of desirable qualities. Because they are intended for use with home watering systems, sprinkler valves are readily available at nearly any location that sells PVC pipe and fittings. Sprinkler valves are intended for electronic actuation, however most are modified for pneumatic actuation, offering better performance in spudding applications.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Valve Actuation ==<br /> A sprinkler valve can be actuated, or opened, in a number of ways. Though they are intended to be opened by the application of 24VAC to the solenoid, many opt for a moddification allowing the [[pilot volume]] to be vented through another valve. Typically a [[Blowgun]] is used, though ball valves and even other sprinkler valves can do the job.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Electronic Actuation ===<br /> Though electronically actuated valves open slower and offer poorer performance over their pneumatically modified counterparts, many spudders prefer this method, since it does not require altering the valve in any way.<br /> <br /> Although most sprinkler valves are intended to operate on 24VAC, they can be successfully opened with 9-27VDC, usually applied by one, two, or three 9v batteries. The power source is wired in series with the solenoid and a switch. The solenoid will retract and the valve will open when voltage is applied.<br /> <br /> Unfortunately for spuders, sprinkler valves are not designed to open quickly since the speed of the valve has little affect on there intended use in sprinkler systems. In addition, the large number of internal turns decreases the flow through the valve to roughly 60-70% of a piston/diaphragm valve of the same diameter.<br /> <br /> === Pneumatic Actuation ===<br /> The performance of a valve can be improved by replacing the stock solenoid-valve vent with a [[pilot valve]] with more flow. Most often this is a blow gun, although for larger valves a ball valve or even a smaller sprinkler valve can be used. This operation is often called [[sprinkler valve modification|modding]] the valve.<br /> <br /> Stock, electrically activated sprinkler valves can be fired remotely using very simple electronics, check out the [[remotely activated valve]] tutorial. <br /> <br /> ==Troubleshooting==<br /> If you are having problems with your sprinkler valve, these are some things to try<br /> <br /> ====Valve &quot;Honks&quot; or &quot;sounds like an airhorn&quot;====<br /> You need a larger pilot valve. For more information, see [[honking]].<br /> <br /> ====Valve won't seal====<br /> If your valve leaks air out the barrel there is a good chance that there is dirt, PVC shavings ''etc.'' in the valve preventing it from closing properly. An easy way to clean the valve it to just hook it up to a hose and flush water through it while cycling the valve a few times. If that doesn't fix the problem then you should disassemble the valve and clean the diaphragm and seat. Check for any plastic chips that may have entered the valve. Smear the diaphragm and seat with lithium grease to promote a seal.<br /> <br /> For other problems, visit the Sprinkler Valve Troubleshooting Guide [http://www.spudfiles.com/forums/sprinkler-valve-troubleshooting-guide-t8780.html]<br /> <br /> <br /> == More Information ==<br /> [[GGDT]]'s website has valve data for sprinklers in it's [http://www.thehalls-in-bfe.com/GGDT/library/library_menu.html design library]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[category:valves]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Sprinkler_valve&diff=3698 2008-05-31T14:39:54Z

<p>Jimmy101: New page: I don&#039;t believe the statement concerning diaphram sprinkler valves &#039;&#039;&quot;Unfortunately for spuders, sprinkler valves are designed to open relatively slowly to prevent &quot;water hammer&quot;&#039;&#039; is corr...</p> <hr /> <div>I don't believe the statement concerning diaphram sprinkler valves ''&quot;Unfortunately for spuders, sprinkler valves are designed to open relatively slowly to prevent &quot;water hammer&quot;'' is correct. A fast opening valve will not give significant &quot;water hammer&quot;. A fast '''closing''' valve will have significant water hammer since water hammer is caused by the momentum of the water in the piping. A rapidly closing water valve has to absorb the &quot;hammer&quot; caused by the velocity of the water entering the valve rapidly changing from a few feet per second to zero feet per second. I would think that sprinkler valves open relatively slowly because there is no particular reason for them to be designed to open quickly. They are designed to '''close''' slowly to minimize water hammer. A slow closing valve is probably of some benefit in a pneumatic gun since it will reduce the tendency for the valve to &quot;honk&quot;.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Fuels_for_Combustion_Spudguns&diff=3654 2008-05-27T17:37:55Z

<p>Jimmy101: you have to have the right amount of fuel or gun won&#039;t ignite</p> <hr /> <div>&lt;p&gt;So, you've glued together some hunks of PVC, installed an ignition<br /> system and bought a bag of russets. What should you use for fuel to get<br /> the most oomph into<br /> that hunk of starch? There are many ways to judge the best fuel for a<br /> combustion spud gun. How<br /> easy is it to use? How expensive is it? And, perhaps most important to<br /> the average spudder, which fuel<br /> will launch the spud at the highest speed?&lt;/p&gt;<br /> <br /> =You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel=<br /> Before discussing the various fuel options we'll start with the most important aspect of fueling a combustion spudgun. <br /> <br /> '''You Must Use The Correct Amount Of Fuel'''. <br /> <br /> An inexperienced spud gunner might think that adding more fuel to the chamber will increase the power of their gun. This is almost always incorrect. For all common fuels too much fuel won't ignite. All fuels have a property called the &quot;combustion limits&quot;. The combustion limits is the range of fuel concentration (usually expressed as the volume percent of fuel in the chamber) that will actually ignite. For most hydrocarbon fuels (propane, butane, flammable aerosols etc.) the combustion limits is about 3% to 9% by volume. If you inject less than ~3%, or more than ~9% of the chamber volume in fuel then the gun will not ignite. <br /> <br /> '''If you've built a combustion spudgun and you can't get it to fire the most likely problem is that you are using too much fuel.'''<br /> <br /> So, your first challenge is to get your fuel in the 3~9% range so that the gun will fire. Your second challenge is to try to get the fuel as close as possible to the '''stoichiometric''' fuel ratio. The stoichiometric fuel ratio is the ratio of fuel to oxygen that allows all the fuel to burn and leaves no oxygen left over at the end of combustion. The stoichiometric fuel ratio will get you very close to the maximum power the fuel is capable of.<br /> <br /> The stoichiometry is determined by the fuel you are using. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of propane (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) in air (~21% oxygen, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is;<br /> C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0<br /> <br /> For every molecule of propane we need 5 molecules of oxygen. Combustion produces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and 4 molecules of water. Gases have the handy property that the number of molecules is proportional to the volume at a constant pressure so the volume ratio of fuel to air will be the same as the ratio of molecules. Since air is only ~21% oxygen we can calculate that for every unit of volume of the chamber we need (1C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;/5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)*(0.21) = 0.042 volumes of fuel. 0.042 volumes of fuel is the same as 4.2% of fuel. (There are some subtleties about calculating the actual volume percent that'll be discussed below.)<br /> <br /> =Common Fuels for Combustion Spud Guns=<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Heats of Combustion&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The &quot;heat of combustion&quot; of a fuel<br /> is a measure of the amount of energy<br /> released when the fuel is<br /> burned. This is an important, but not the only, factor affecting the<br /> performance of a fuel. The table<br /> below lists the heats of combustion along with other parameters for a<br /> variety of pure fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> Heats of combustion can be measured in several different ways and this<br /> makes it difficult to find a consistent set of values for various<br /> fuels. Web based sources list both &quot;high heat&quot; values (which are<br /> obtained assuming the water produced condenses to liquid) and &quot;low<br /> heat&quot; values (which assume the water is present as steam) as well as<br /> thermodynamic heats of combustion. For this reason, the table below<br /> lists multiple values for most of the fuels. To obtain a consistent set<br /> of values for comparison purposes, I have used the red ones which were &lt;u&gt;calculated&lt;/u&gt;<br /> using the method at [http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq]. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;Displasive Volume Percent&quot; column gives the stoichiometric volume<br /> of fuel required if the fuel displaces some of the air in<br /> the chamber when it is injected, for example when fueling with the<br /> &quot;squirt and screw&quot; method or using a syringe. The &quot;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&quot; gives the amount of fuel<br /> required when the fuel does not<br /> displace air from the chamber, for example when using a pressurized<br /> meter system. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The key value for comparing two fuels based on their heats of<br /> combustion is not the actual heats of combustion. Instead, the &quot;Heat<br /> per mole Oxygen&quot; should be used since the amount of energy in the<br /> combustion chamber is<br /> limited by the amount of oxygen present in the chamber. Fuel is added<br /> to match that amount<br /> of oxygen. As you can see from the table, there is relatively little<br /> difference between the various fuels based on their &quot;Heat per mole<br /> Oxygen&quot; values. The only two fuels with significantly higher values are<br /> hydrogen and acetylene, both of<br /> which give 10~15% more energy<br /> than the other fuels.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat of Combust.<br /> (Kcal/mole)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Limits in<br /> Air (Vol%)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Boiling Point,C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Mole O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> per mole &lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Heat per mole Oxygen<br /> (Kcal)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Displasive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Additive Volume<br /> Percent&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Molecular Weight<br /> (g/mol)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Combustion Equation&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;68.3&lt;br&gt;<br /> 62.5&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;59.7&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.0 - 74.2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-253&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-423)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;0.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;119&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;29.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;41.9&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;192&lt;br&gt;<br /> 191&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;212&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;215&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5 - 15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-162&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-259)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;9.48&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;10.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; +<br /> 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;373&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> 340&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;371&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3 - 12.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-89 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-184)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.65&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.99&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 7O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Ethylene&lt;br&gt;<br /> (Ethene)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;315&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;337&lt;b&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;337&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.8 - 28.6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-103.7 &lt;br&gt;<br /> (-155)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;112&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;322&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;301&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5 - 80 &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-81&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-119)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;120&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;7.73&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;8.38&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;525&lt;br&gt;<br /> 487&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;530&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;527&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;2.37 - 9.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-42.1&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-44)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.02&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.19&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;684&lt;br&gt;<br /> 633&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;687&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-0.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (31)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;iso- Butane&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#3366ff&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;683&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.86 - 8.41&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-11.7&lt;br&gt;<br /> (11)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;105&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.67&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.81&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; 2C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 13O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 8CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 10H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; MAPP&lt;/b&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Methyl Acetylene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-23.2&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-9.0)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt; &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Propadiene&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;457&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-30)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font<br /> color=&quot;#cc0000&quot; face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;114&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;4.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;5.24&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;<br /> + 4O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Diethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;647&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;1.85 - 36.5&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;34.5&lt;br&gt;<br /> (94)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;108&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;3.49&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; nowrap=&quot;nowrap&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt; C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 4CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Dimethyl Ether&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;329&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;-25&lt;br&gt;<br /> (-13)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#cc0000&quot;<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;110&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.53&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;6.98&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font<br /> face=&quot;Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O<br /> + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;= 2CO&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;+ 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> '''Table Notes:'''<br /> &lt;ol&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Additive and displasive volumes based on air containing 20.95%<br /> (volume) oxygen.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;MAPP gas is a proprietary mixture of various hydrocarbons,<br /> principally methyl acetylene, propadiene and propane.&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;References: http://members.nuvox.net/F%7Eon.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://members.nuvox.net/F~on.jwclymer/Frq/Fhoctable.html&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://home.fuse.net/clymer/rq combustion calculator&lt;br&gt;<br /> http://www.nrc.gov/freading-rm/fdoc-collections/fnuregs/fstaff/fsr1805/ffinal-report/f15_explosion_calculations.xls<br /> &lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ol&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;&quot;Traditional&quot; Fuels&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;RightGuard&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> RightGuard, one of the traditional spudgun fuels, has undergone various<br /> changes in composition over the years. Some types of RightGuard are<br /> still usable as a spudgun fuel.<br /> If the label has a warning about flammability and/or the ingredient<br /> lists includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> useable as a fuel. From the<br /> Heats of Combustion table above you can see that there is relatively<br /> little difference between these three ingredients. Even the optimum<br /> volume percents are fairly close to each other. Since RightGuard is<br /> generally used in the &quot;squirt and screw&quot; fueling mode, the actual<br /> percent of fuel is difficult to<br /> control. It seems likely that the other ingredients in the can make up<br /> a fairly low percentage and probably have a relatively minor affect on<br /> the energy of the fuel.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Aquanet&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Aquanet, and similar hair sprays, have many of the same characteristics<br /> as RightGuard. If the label warns that it is flammable, and if the<br /> ingredient includes things like butane,<br /> isobutane, or propane then it is<br /> probably usable. As with RightGuard, the other ingredients in the can,<br /> which may or may not be flammable, probably constitute a fairly low<br /> percentage of the gas. There is the possibility that the other<br /> ingredients may gum up the spark gap, fan or cleanout plug threads<br /> after several uses.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Starter Fluid&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;By definition, automotive starter fluid is combustible. There are no<br /> doubt a couple of different formulations. One common formulation<br /> includes 10~30% (weight) dimethyl ether and a propane propellant. Most<br /> formulations should behave about the same as pure propane. &lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Other Fuels&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;Pretty much any combustible compound that evaporates significantly<br /> at ~70F can be used as fuel in a<br /> combustion spudgun. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol (rubbing alcohol),<br /> gasoline, acetone (nail polish remover), paint thinner etc. can all be<br /> used as fuel. The challenge with<br /> these liquid fuels is getting them to evaporate in the gun in a<br /> reproducible fashion. The actual energy<br /> content of this type of fuel is<br /> fairly irrelevant since the shot to shot reproducibility is so poor. It<br /> really doesn't matter, with this type of fuel, whether the predicted<br /> muzzle<br /> velocity is 10% great with one fuel<br /> versus another since the shot to shot variability is probably more like<br /> 50%. (Even with precisely metered propane,<br /> the shot to shot variability in muzzle velocity for shooting spuds is<br /> typically in the 10 to 20% range.)&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;One thing that you should keep in mind with liquid fuels is the<br /> potential for weakening the PVC. Take a look at the ingredients list on<br /> your cans of PVC cleaner and glue. Anything listed on those cans should<br /> probably be avoided as fuels. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran (THF) in<br /> particular are probably not the best idea for fuel since they soften<br /> PVC.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Other Factors&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> The heat of combustion is not the only factor affecting the power of a<br /> particular fuel. The rate at<br /> which the fuel burns and the<br /> maximum temperature and pressure obtained from the fuel also affects<br /> the performance<br /> of the gun.<br /> &lt;h3&gt;Flame Speed and Power Law&lt;/h3&gt;<br /> Gaseous fuels burn at widely varying rates. For a combustion spudgun,<br /> the faster the fuel burns the<br /> better the gun will perform. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of<br /> information available on the burn rates of various fuels. The table<br /> below lists a few fuels of interests (values from <br /> http://www.ub.uib.no/elpub/2004/h/404003/Hovedoppgave.pdf).<br /> The flame front speed is how fast the flame moves through the mixture<br /> at ambient conditions. In an actual combustion spudgun the flame front<br /> accelerates as the temperature in the chamber rises. The flame front<br /> speed as a function of temperature and pressure can be estimated using;<br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = (Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)*(T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;alpha&lt;/sup&gt;*(P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;beta&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br /> Where Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, alpha and beta are the values shown in<br /> the table below and Flame speed&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed at temperature<br /> T&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and pressure P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.<br /> &lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; Fuel&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Flame Front Speed,<br /> meters/sec (FPS)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maximum Explosion Pressure<br /> (ATM)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Adiabatic Flame<br /> Temperature, C (F)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;alpha&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;beta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Methane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;8.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2591 (4696)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-1.5&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Propane&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.43&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.2&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2633 (4771)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.17&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; Hydrogen&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;7.9&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2755 (4991)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;tr&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;Acetylene&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;1.55&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;9.6&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2918 (5284)&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;2.0&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;-0.06&lt;/td&gt;<br /> &lt;/tr&gt;<br /> &lt;/table&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt;As the table above shows, simple hydrocarbons such as methane and<br /> propane, behave similarly, with<br /> relatively slow flame front speeds and similar peak pressures and<br /> temperatures. Hydrogen and<br /> acetylene are substantially different. These two fuels burn much<br /> faster, 3 to 8 times faster at standard conditions, than does propane.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;p&gt; Hydrogen and acetylene have<br /> another characteristic that differentiates them from fuels such as<br /> propane of butane. Under certain conditions, hydrogen and acetylene<br /> will<br /> detonate (explode) instead of deflagrate (burn). When a fuel detonates<br /> it releases all of<br /> its energy essentially<br /> instantaneously. The flame front speed in a detonation event is at<br /> hyper-mach speeds (mach 6 to 7), roughly 4,000 times faster than the<br /> laminar flame front speed (Mach ~0.001). Because of the very high burn<br /> rate in a detonation, the gun is subjected to a tremendous shock force.<br /> &lt;u&gt;Most spudders believe that this level of stress is unsafe and that<br /> hydrogen and acetylene are unsafe<br /> fuels for a gun constructed from &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;PVC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/u&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;<br /> &lt;h2&gt;Latke's Propane vs. MAPP<br /> Study&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> Burnt Latke did a detailed study (<br /> [http://www.burntlatke.com/lpmapprussets.html]) comparing the<br /> muzzle velocities of propane and<br /> MAPP&lt;/a&gt;. Using a 1.5&quot;D riffled barrel shooting spuds, Latke found that<br /> MAPP out performed propane with<br /> muzzle velocities of 444 (+/-34) FPS for MAPP and 398 (+/-34) FPS for<br /> propane. So MAPP gave muzzle<br /> velocities that were about 12% faster than propane. This increase in<br /> performance is greater than what you would expect based solely on the<br /> &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot; values for the two fuels. If the muzzle velocity<br /> scales as the square root of the ratio of the &quot;Heat per mole Oxygen&quot;<br /> values, then MAPP would be expected to give muzzle velocities about ~4%<br /> higher than propane. It is<br /> possible that the 12% increase Latke observed is not statistically<br /> different from the expected ~4% increase. Alternatively, MAPP may burn<br /> slightly faster than propane.<br /> Two of the components of MAPP, methyl acetylene and propadiene, would<br /> be expected to have burn speeds that are more similar to acetylene than<br /> propane.<br /> &lt;h2&gt;So, What's the &lt;u&gt;Best&lt;/u&gt; Fuel?&lt;/h2&gt;<br /> There really isn't a &quot;best fuel&quot;<br /> for a combustion spud gun. If you want to get the maximum muzzle<br /> velocity from a gun the difference between the various fuels is<br /> relatively small. A typical combustion spud gun has so much shot to<br /> shot variation in velocity that the relatively small difference between<br /> fuels is not particularly relevant. Latke ([http://www.burntlatke.com/]), as good of a spudder as<br /> there is, has done several studies using an accurate chronometer to<br /> measure muzzle velocities. In all of his studies with spuds as<br /> projectiles, using precisely metered fuels, the shot to shot<br /> variability in muzzle velocity is typically in the 10 to 20% range. In<br /> studies where Latke used &lt;u&gt;the same round for several shots&lt;/u&gt; the<br /> shot to shot variability is still in the 5% range. So it really doesn't<br /> matter very much if one fuel has<br /> 5% more energy than another fuel.<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> The &quot;best fuel&quot; is the one that<br /> the gunner is most comfortable with, that is easiest to obtain and use,<br /> and is cheap. Beyond that there is really no significant difference<br /> between fuels. &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> There are other ways to get the best performance out of a combustion<br /> spudgun. Here is my list, from most important to least important;<br /> &lt;ul&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Mix the fuel well using a<br /> chamber fan (like shown at [http://www.burntlatke.com/fan.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Accurately measure the fuel<br /> ([http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Sluka_Spud-zooka.html] describes a cheap<br /> way, another at [http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejimsluka/Fuel%20Meter%20From%20A%20Disposable%20Butane%20Lighter.html]<br /> way, a way with much more &quot;bling&quot; is at [http://www.burntlatke.com/lp.html]).&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Properly size the barrel to the chamber (or vice versa)&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;li&gt;Increase the number of sparks&lt;/li&gt;<br /> &lt;/ul&gt;<br /> Any of these four will give much greater increases in performance than<br /> will changing from, for example, propane<br /> to MAPP.&lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;br&gt;<br /> &lt;span class=&quot;gensmall&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Originally posted at SpudTech.com on Fri<br /> Feb 09, 2007<br /> --[[User:Jimmy101|Jimmy101]] 13:53, 15 May 2007 (EDT)</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Fuel_meter&diff=3641 2008-05-20T20:57:13Z

<p>Jimmy101: Added needle valve + pressure gauge</p> <hr /> <div>A '''fuel meter''', also known as a '''propane meter''', is used to inject a predetermined amount of fuel gas (usually [[propane]]) into the chamber of a [[Combustion cannon|combustion]] or [[hybrid cannon|hybrid]]. Any system that injects a known volume of fuel into the gun is a fuel meter. Fuel meters can take a couple of different basic forms. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Syringe small.jpg|frame|60cc Syringe and Needle]]<br /> == Syringe based meter ==<br /> The simplest and cheapest fuel meter is a syringe. The syringe is filled from a propane (or butane) tank by inserting the syringe tip into a suitable sized piece of hose fitted over the tank outlet. When the tank valve is opened the syringe plunger will move back. The tank valve is closed when the correct amount of fuel is in the syringe. The syringe is removed from the hose and the excess pressure in the syringe is released to the atmosphere. The syringe now contains the measured volume of fuel at atmospheric pressure. The fuel is injected into the gun's chamber using a needle passed through a small port, or between the cleanout adaptor and cleanout plug. Plastic syringes up to about 60cc are available from well supplied farm supply stores since the syringes are used to give medicines to farm animals. Expect to pay about $2 for a 60cc plastic syringe and perhaps another $1 for a blunt tip needle. Smaller syringes frequently come with printer cartridge ink refil kits. <br /> <br /> == Ball valve + pressure regulator based meter ==<br /> More compex fuel meters consist of an adjustable [[pressure regulator]] and [[pressure gauge]], connected to two [[ball valve]]s with a length of pipe in between. The volume of this pipe and the pressure of the gas determines the amount of gas injected. The second ball valve is connected to the chamber of the gun.<br /> A fuel meter is operated as follows:<br /> *The regulator is set to a predetermined pressure for the particular meter and chamber size<br /> *The ball valve closest to the regulator is opened, filling the pipe up until the second ball valve with gas at the regulated pressure<br /> *The first ball valve is closed again, closing off the section of pipe between the two valves<br /> *The second ball valve is opened, the pressurized gas inside the meter expands and enters the main chamber<br /> *The second ball valve is closed, and the cannon is ready to fire<br /> <br /> The regulator usually only needs to be set the first time, and further fueling can be done simply by opening and closing the two ball valves. A fuel meter provides fast and very consistent fueling, and is the easiest way to use bottled gas for fuel.<br /> <br /> It is possible to construct a fuel meter using only a meter pipe, pressure gauge, and two ball valves (with no regulator). This type of meter is less expensive and will provide accurate fueling, but is not as easy to use as a meter setup with a regulator.<br /> <br /> ===Calculations===<br /> <br /> Constructing a fuel meter and determining the correct pressure to use requires a few calculations. First you need to calculate the fuel:air ratio, and from that the amount of fuel needed. These calculations are covered under [[stoichiometry]].<br /> <br /> <br /> Formulas for fuel meters:<br /> <br /> P=pressure in bar, Vf=fuel volume, Vm=meter volume. Any unit of measurement can be used for the volume, as long as the same unit is used throughout. Pressure needs to be converted to bar, if you have the pressure in psi divide it by 14.7.<br /> *P = Vf/Vm<br /> *Vm = Vf/P<br /> *Vf = P*Vm<br /> <br /> ===Concrete example===<br /> <br /> In the example from the stoichiometry article, we found that the fuel volume needed for a 3000 cc chamber is 126 cc. At 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi) of overpressure, we'd need a meter volume of 126 cc. At twice the pressure, we'd need half the volume and so on.<br /> <br /> For the example, we decide that meter pressure will be 3 bar. The meter volume required is then 126/3 = 42 cc.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fuel Tool (found on Burnt Latke's [http://www.burntlatke.com/calc.html performance calculators page]) automates the fuel meter calculations.<br /> <br /> == Needle Valve plus Pressure Gauge ==<br /> <br /> [[Image:UL100_sm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bernzomatic Torch]]<br /> Another type of fuel meter is simply a needle valve and a low range pressure gauge. The needle valve can be the valve and very small outlet hole in a typical Bernzomatic torch head. <br /> <br /> The needle valve is plumbed to the chamber as is the low pressure gauge. To protect the torch and gauge it is a good idea to plumb both through a single small ball valve. To use, the ball valve is opened. Then the needle valve is opened a small amount. When the pressure in the chamber has risen 4% the two valves are closed. Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 PSI, adding 4% propane will raise the pressure in the chamber by 0.59 PSIG. Since the pressure rise is small, standard 120 or 250 PSIG gauges won't work for this type of meter. <br /> <br /> A possible replacement for a low pressure range gauge is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manometer#Liquid_column|&quot;U-tube manometer&quot;]. In this type of pressure gauge the pressure is related to the difference in height of the two columns of liquid. If the U-tube is filled with water, then a 1&quot; difference in height represents a 0.0361 PSI difference in pressure. So, 0.59 PSI would be a 16.3&quot; height difference for the two water columns. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Utube.gif|U-Tube Manometer]] <br /> [[Category:Accessories]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=File:Utube.gif&diff=3640 2008-05-20T20:45:43Z

<p>Jimmy101: A simple U-tube pressure gauge sutiable for low pressure ranges.</p> <hr /> <div>A simple U-tube pressure gauge sutiable for low pressure ranges.</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Ammo&diff=3636 2008-05-10T18:39:39Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Description of the table columns: */</p> <hr /> <div>== Description of the table columns: ==<br /> <br /> ; Ammo : The type of ammo. For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this gives a typical length of the ammo. The length of the ammo and the barrel diameter determine the actual size of the ammo. For spuds, there is more than one way to [[potato#Selection, cutting and use|cut]] the shell.<br /> ; Mass : The mass of the ammo in ounces (oz.) and grams.<br /> ; Diameter : The diameter of the ammo in inches (&quot;) and centimeters (cm). For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this is the barrel diameter. For ammo that is not cut, such as golf balls, this is the ammo's normal diameter.<br /> ; Cd : Coeficient of drag. The Cd of a particular ammo is usually dependent on the velocity of the ammo and whether or not it is spinning or tumbling.<br /> ; Terminal Velocity : The maximum velocity the ammo will reach when dropped, in air, form a great height.<br /> ; Barrel : Suggestions as suitable barrels for the particular ammo. Primarily for ammo that has a defined size, such as a tennis ball.<br /> ; Other Info : Various other bits of information concerning the ammo.<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;<br /> |+ '''Common Spud Gun Ammo'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''Ammo''' || '''Mass''' || '''Diameter''' || '''Cd''' || '''Terminal&lt;br/&gt;Velocity''' || '''Barrel''' ||''' Other Info''' <br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Vegies'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 2.54 oz., 72g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 5.04 oz., 143g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 4.20 oz., 119g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 8.40 oz., 238g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Balls'''<br /> |- <br /> | Ping-Pong Ball || 0.095 oz., 2.7g || 0.95&quot;, cm || 0.460 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 9m/s, 30fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | [[Golf ball]] || 1.59 oz., 45g || 1.68&quot;, 4.27cm || 0.299 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 40m/s, 132fps || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Tennis_ball|Tennis Ball]] || 2.08 oz., 59g || 2.56&quot;, 6.5cm || 0.283 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 31m/s, 102fps ||align=left|<br /> * 2.5&quot; SCH 40 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 21 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26<br /> || -<br /> |- <br /> | Baseball || 5.1 oz., 145g || 2.9&quot;, 7.4cm || 0.290 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 42m/s, 138fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | Basketball || 21.2 oz., 600g || 9.5&quot;, 24.1cm || 0.500 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 20m/s, 66fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Ball Bearings (BBs, Airsoft, Paintballs...)'''<br /> |-<br /> | 0.177&quot; Copper/Steel BB || 0.0116 oz, 0.33g || 0.177&quot;, 0.45cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | 6mm Airsoft || 0.0071 oz., 0.20g || 0.23&quot;, 0.6cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; [[Paintball]] || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; glass marble || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Batteries'''<br /> |-<br /> | AA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | AAA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[C_Cell|C]] || 2.4-2.6 oz., 68-74g || 0.996&quot;, 2.53cm || - || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2&quot; (5.1cm) long<br /> * mass varies by brand<br /> |-<br /> | D || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Other Things'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[CO2_cartridge|12g CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Cartridge]]&lt;br&gt;(empty) || 1.05 oz., 30g || 0.73&quot;, 1.85cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 0.75&quot; SCH 40 PVC <br /> || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Ice]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Pycrete]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Beverage_can|Soda Can]] || 13.0 oz., 369g&lt;br&gt;(water filled) || 2.6&quot;, 6.6cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26 <br /> * [[Sleeved]] 3&quot; SCH 40<br /> || -<br /> |}<br /> '''Table Notes'''<br /> # The Cd values for the various sport balls (tennis ball, golfball ...) were calculated based on their terminal velocities using the equation &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=2&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;mg&lt;/span&gt;/(&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;A&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;terminal&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) with g=9.8m/s and &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;=1290g/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. The terminal velocities were from [http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/CTNJune2002.pdf Terminal Velocity Teachers Notes] and [http://www.gantless.com/paper.html A Penny in Free Fall].<br /> <br /> [[Category:Projectiles]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Ammo&diff=3626 2008-04-30T17:47:39Z

<p>Jimmy101: /* Description of the table columns: */</p> <hr /> <div>== Description of the table columns: ==<br /> <br /> ; Ammo : The type of ammo. For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this gives a typical length of the ammo. The length of the ammo and the barrel diameter determine the actual size of the ammo. For spuds, there is more than one way to [[potato#Selection, cutting and use|cut]] the shell.<br /> ; Mass : The mass of the ammo in ounces (oz.) and grams.<br /> ; Diameter : The diameter of the ammo in inches (&quot;) and centimeters (cm). For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this is the barrel diameter. For ammo that is not cut, such as golf balls, this is the ammo's normal diameter.<br /> ; Cd : Coeficient of drag. The Cd of a particular ammo is usually dependent on the velocity of the ammo and whether or not it is spinning or tumbling.<br /> ; Terminal Velocity : The maximum velocity the ammo will reach when dropped, in air, form a great height.<br /> ; Barrel : Suggestions as suitable barrels for the particular ammo. Primarily for ammo that has a defined size, such as a tennis ball.<br /> ; Other Info : Various other bits of information concerning the ammo.<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;<br /> |+ '''Common Spud Gun Ammo'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''Ammo''' || '''Mass''' || '''Diameter''' || '''Cd''' || '''Terminal&lt;br/&gt;Velocity''' || '''Barrel''' ||''' Other Info''' <br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Vegies'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 2.54 oz., 72g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 5.04 oz., 143g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 4.20 oz., 119g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 8.40 oz., 238g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Balls'''<br /> |- <br /> | Ping-Pong Ball || 0.095 oz., 2.7g || 0.95&quot;, cm || 0.460 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 9m/s, 30fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | [[Golf ball]] || 1.59 oz., 45g || 1.68&quot;, 4.27cm || 0.299 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 40m/s, 132fps || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Tennis_ball|Tennis Ball]] || 2.08 59g || 2.56&quot;, 6.5cm || 0.283 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 31m/s, 102fps ||align=left|<br /> * 2.5&quot; SCH 40 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 21 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26<br /> || -<br /> |- <br /> | Baseball || 5.1 oz., 145g || 2.9&quot;, 7.4cm || 0.290 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 42m/s, 138fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | Basketball || 21.2 oz., 600g || 9.5&quot;, 24.1cm || 0.500 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 20m/s, 66fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Ball Bearings (BBs, Airsoft, Paintballs...)'''<br /> |-<br /> | 0.177&quot; Copper/Steel BB || 0.0116 oz, 0.33g || 0.177&quot;, 0.45cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | 6mm Airsoft || 0.0071 oz., 0.20g || 0.23&quot;, 0.6cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; [[Paintball]] || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; glass marble || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Batteries'''<br /> |-<br /> | AA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | AAA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[C_Cell|C]] || 2.4-2.6 oz., 68-74g || 0.996&quot;, 2.53cm || - || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2&quot; (5.1cm) long<br /> * mass varies by brand<br /> |-<br /> | D || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Other Things'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[CO2_cartridge|12g CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Cartridge]]&lt;br&gt;(empty) || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 0.75&quot; SCH 40 PVC <br /> || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Ice]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Pycrete]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Beverage_can|Soda Can]] || 13.0 oz., 369g&lt;br&gt;(water filled) || 2.6&quot;, 6.6cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26 <br /> * [[Sleeved]] 3&quot; SCH 40<br /> || -<br /> |}<br /> '''Table Notes'''<br /> # The Cd values for the various sport balls (tennis ball, golfball ...) were calculated based on their terminal velocities using the equation &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=2&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;mg&lt;/span&gt;/(&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;A&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;terminal&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) with g=9.8m/s and &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;=1290g/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. The terminal velocities were from [http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/CTNJune2002.pdf Terminal Velocity Teachers Notes] and [http://www.gantless.com/paper.html A Penny in Free Fall].<br /> <br /> [[Category:Projectiles]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Common_Ammo&diff=3625 2008-04-30T17:46:41Z

<p>Jimmy101: added CO2 cartridge, but missing data</p> <hr /> <div>== Description of the table columns: ==<br /> <br /> ; Ammo : The type of ammo. For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this gives a typical length of the ammo. The length of the ammo and the barrel diameter determine the actual size of the ammo. For spuds, there is more than one way to [[potato#Selection, cutting and use|cut]] the shell.<br /> ; Mass : The mass of the ammo in ounces (oz.) and grams.<br /> ; Diameter : The diameter of the ammo in inches (&quot;) and centimeters (cm). For ammo that is cut by the barrel, such as spuds, this is the barrel diameter. For ammo that is not cut, such as golf balls, this is the ammo's normal diameter.<br /> ; Cd : Coeficient of drag. The Cd of a particular ammo is usually dependent on the velocity of the ammo and whether or not it is spinning or tumbling.<br /> ; Terminal Velocity : The maximum velocity the ammo will reach when dropped, in air, form a great height.<br /> ; Barrel : Suggestions as suitable barrels for the particular ammo. Primarily for ammo that has a defined size, such as a tennis ball.<br /> ; Other Info : Various other bits of information concerning the ammo.<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;<br /> |+ '''Common Spud Gun Ammo'''<br /> |-<br /> | '''Ammo''' || '''Mass''' || '''Diameter''' || '''Cd''' || '''Terminal&lt;br/&gt;Velocity''' || '''Barrel''' ||''' Other Info''' <br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Vegies'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 2.54 oz., 72g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 ||align=left| <br /> * density ~1.1g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 5.04 oz., 143g || 1.59&quot;, 4.04cm || - || - || 1.5&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 2&quot;L || 4.20 oz., 119g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Spud]], 4&quot;L || 8.40 oz., 238g || 2.05&quot;, 5.21cm || - || - || 2&quot; SCH 40 || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Balls'''<br /> |- <br /> | Ping-Pong Ball || 0.095 oz., 2.7g || 0.95&quot;, cm || 0.460 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 9m/s, 30fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | [[Golf ball]] || 1.59 oz., 45g || 1.68&quot;, 4.27cm || 0.299 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 40m/s, 132fps || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Tennis_ball|Tennis Ball]] || 2.08 59g || 2.56&quot;, 6.5cm || 0.283 &lt;br\&gt; (note 1) || 31m/s, 102fps ||align=left|<br /> * 2.5&quot; SCH 40 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 21 <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26<br /> || -<br /> |- <br /> | Baseball || 5.1 oz., 145g || 2.9&quot;, 7.4cm || 0.290 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 42m/s, 138fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> | Basketball || 21.2 oz., 600g || 9.5&quot;, 24.1cm || 0.500 &lt;br \&gt; (note 1) || 20m/s, 66fps || - || -<br /> |- <br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Ball Bearings (BBs, Airsoft, Paintballs...)'''<br /> |-<br /> | 0.177&quot; Copper/Steel BB || 0.0116 oz, 0.33g || 0.177&quot;, 0.45cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | 6mm Airsoft || 0.0071 oz., 0.20g || 0.23&quot;, 0.6cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; [[Paintball]] || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | ??&quot; glass marble || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Batteries'''<br /> |-<br /> | AA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | AAA || ? oz., ?g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[C_Cell|C]] || 2.4-2.6 oz., 68-74g || 0.996&quot;, 2.53cm || - || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2&quot; (5.1cm) long<br /> * mass varies by brand<br /> |-<br /> | D || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> !colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Other Things'''<br /> |-<br /> | [[CO2_cartridge|12g CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Cartridge]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 0.75&quot; SCH 40 PVC <br /> || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Ice]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Pycrete]] || ?? oz., ??g || ?&quot;, ?cm || - || - || - || -<br /> |-<br /> | [[Beverage_can|Soda Can]] || 13.0 oz., 369g&lt;br&gt;(water filled) || 2.6&quot;, 6.6cm || - || - ||align=left| <br /> * 2.5&quot; SDR 26 <br /> * [[Sleeved]] 3&quot; SCH 40<br /> || -<br /> |}<br /> '''Table Notes'''<br /> # The Cd values for the various sport balls (tennis ball, golfball ...) were calculated based on their terminal velocities using the equation &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;=2&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;mg&lt;/span&gt;/(&lt;span<br /> style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;A&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;terminal&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) with g=9.8m/s and &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&amp;#961;&lt;/span&gt;=1290g/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. The terminal velocities were from [http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/CTNJune2002.pdf Terminal Velocity Teachers Notes] and [http://www.gantless.com/paper.html A Penny in Free Fall].<br /> <br /> [[Category:Projectiles]]</div>

Jimmy101 https://spudfiles.com/spud_wiki/index.php?title=Spark_gap&diff=3624 2008-04-29T16:26:44Z

<p>Jimmy101: added details about electrode radius and the pressure dependence</p> <hr /> <div>A '''spark gap''' consists of two metal electrodes placed close to each other with a gap in between, where an electrical spark can jump. They are used for igniting the fuel in [[combustion cannon|combustion]] and [[hybrid cannon]]s. Spark gaps are normally made by screwing two screws through the side wall of the chamber so that the tips of the screws end up very close to each other. The screws should be mounted to keep the heads a good distance a part to ensure that the spark will not jump between the heads outside the chamber. The gap distance must be small enough that the voltage from the ignition source can jump across it. The distance dependence is about 1 mm/kV (25KV/inch) for sharp tipped electrodes. The distance varies with the shape of the electrodes, sharp points will spark across a larger distance for a given voltage than will dull points. For two flat surfaces the distance drops to about 0.3mm/KV (75KV/inch).<br /> <br /> The maximum spark distance is also dependent on the pressure of the gases. As the pressure is increased the gap distance a particular voltage will spark across decreases. The pressurized mixture of a hybrid will shorten the max spark length significantly, so a hybrid spark gap should be a fair bit smaller than practical spark length in air to ensure reliability. The relationship beteen pressure and distance is roughly linear. Increasing the pressure 10X will decrease the distance by roughly 10 fold. So, a BBQ piezo sparker that reliably sparks across a 1/8&quot; gap in a 1X gun will only spark across an ~0.01&quot; gap in a 10X hybrid.<br /> <br /> Spark plugs can be used for spark gaps, and are especially useful in metal guns, where the chamber wall would short out the screws of an ordinary spark gap.<br /> <br /> Two or more spark gaps can be connected in series to generate multiple sparks, as long as the width of the combined gaps is smaller than the maximum spark distance. Spark gaps can not be wired in parallel, since the spark will then only jump the smallest gap. <br /> [[image:Multigap2.gif|border]]<br /> <br /> Alternatively, the electrode to electrode wiring can be placed inside the chamber, for example:<br /> [[image:Multiple_gaps.gif|border]]<br /> <br /> (For details see http://burntlatke.quibble.com/short.html)<br /> <br /> [[Spark strip]]s are another popular method of achieving multiple spark gaps.<br /> <br /> [[category:Concepts]]<br /> [[category:Components]]</div>

Jimmy101